An Overview of Carbon Quantum Dots Synthesis and Characterization Methods

An Overview of Carbon Quantum Dots Synthesis and Characterization Methods

Disha Arora, Sahil Kohli, Indrani, Mansi Sharma, Sourabh Garg, Garima Rathee

Carbon Quantum Dots (CQDs) are a new type of nanomaterial that have unique physical, chemical, and optical capabilities. These nanoparticles could be used in many different areas, including as biology, the environment, and optoelectronics. This chapter gives a full overview of CQDs, including their synthesis and characterization. This chapter provides a thorough examination of bottom-up and top-down approaches, encompassing hydrothermal, microwave, ultrasonic, and electrochemical technologies. The chapter also goes into great detail about the many ways that CQDs can be characterized, with a focus on the advanced fluorescence mechanisms that they have. These methods are used to study the morphology, structural properties, and optical behaviours of CQDs. In conclusion, the chapter stresses how important CQDs are to current research and how they could be used in nanomedicine and technologies that are good for the environment.

Keywords
Carbon quantum dots, Synthesis, Characterization, Fluorescence, Nanotechnology, Bottom-up, Top-down, Applications, Optical Properties

Published online 11/15/2026, 31 pages

Citation: Disha Arora, Sahil Kohli, Indrani, Mansi Sharma, Sourabh Garg, Garima Rathee, An Overview of Carbon Quantum Dots Synthesis and Characterization Methods, Materials Research Foundations, Vol. 197, pp 29-59, 2026

DOI: https://doi.org/10.21741/9781644904435-2

Part of the book on Carbon Quantum Dots

References
[1] N. Greiner, D.S. Phillips, J.D. Johnson, F. Volk, Diamonds in detonation soot, Nature 333 (1988) 440-442. https://doi.org/10.1038/333440a0
[2] D. Arora, D. Aggarwal, S. Ghosh, R. Narula, Photon absorption in twisted bilayer graphene, Phys. Rev. B 110 (2024) 245418. https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevB.110.245418
[3] D. Arora, D. Aggarwal, S. Ghosh, R. Narula, Interference effects in polarization-controlled Rayleigh scattering in twisted bilayer graphene, Phys. Rev. B 107 (2023) 205423. https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevB.107.205423
[4] W. Yang, K.R. Ratinac, S.P. Ringer, P. Thordarson, J.J. Gooding, F. Braet, Carbon nanomaterials in biosensors: Should you use nanotubes or graphene?, Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 49 (2010) 2114-2138. https://doi.org/10.1002/anie.200903463
[5] S. Anwar, H. Ding, M. Xu, X. Hu, Z. Li, J. Wang, L. Liu, Recent advances in synthesis, optical properties, and biomedical applications of carbon dots, ACS Appl. Bio Mater. 2 (2019) 2317-2338. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsabm.9b00112
[6] G. Rathee, A. Puertas-Segura, J. Blair, J. Rathee, T. Tzanov, Quantum dots@layered double hydroxides: emerging nanocomposites for multifaceted applications, Prog. Mater. Sci. 150 (2025) 101403. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pmatsci.2024.101403
[7] X. Xu, R. Ray, Y. Gu, H.J. Ploehn, L. Gearheart, K. Raker, W.A. Scrivens, Electrophoretic analysis and purification of fluorescent single-walled carbon nanotube fragments, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 126 (2004) 12736-12737. https://doi.org/10.1021/ja040082h
[8] H.B.A. Sousa, C.S.M. Martins, J.A.V. Prior, You don’t learn that in school: An updated practical guide to carbon quantum dots, Nanomaterials 11 (2021) 611. https://doi.org/10.3390/nano11030611
[9] Y.-P. Sun, B. Zhou, Y. Lin, W. Wang, K.A.S. Fernando, P. Pathak, M.J. Meziani et al., Quantum-sized carbon dots for bright and colorful photoluminescence, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 128 (2006) 7756-7757. https://doi.org/10.1021/ja062677d
[10] S.E. Elugoke, G.E. Uwaya, T.W. Quadri, E.E. Ebenso, Carbon quantum dots: Basics, properties, and fundamentals, in: Carbon Dots: Recent Developments and Future Perspectives, Am. Chem. Soc., 2024, pp. 3-42. https://doi.org/10.1021/bk-2024-1465.ch001
[11] S.K. Saraswat, M.A. Mustafa, G.K. Ghadir, M. Kaur, D.F.G. Lozada, A.M. Al-Ani, M.Y. Alshahrani et al., Carbon quantum dots: A comprehensive review of green synthesis, characterization and investigation their applications in bioimaging, Inorg. Chem. Commun. 162 (2024) 112279. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.inoche.2024.112279
[12] W.A.A. Mohamed, H.A. El-Gawad, S. Mekkey, H. Galal, H. Handal, H. Mousa, A. Labib, Quantum dots synthetization and future prospect applications, Nanotechnol. Rev. 10 (2021) 1926-1940. https://doi.org/10.1515/ntrev-2021-0118
[13] B. Acharya, A. Behera, S. Behera, S. Moharana, Carbon quantum dots: A systematic overview of recent developments in synthesis, properties, and novel therapeutic applications, Inorg. Chem. Commun. 165 (2024) 112492. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.inoche.2024.112492
[14] S.J. Phang, L.-L. Tan, Recent advances in carbon quantum dot (CQD)-based two dimensional materials for photocatalytic applications, Catal. Sci. Technol. 9 (2019) 5882-5905. https://doi.org/10.1039/C9CY01452G
[15] M.J. Molaei, Carbon quantum dots and their biomedical and therapeutic applications: A review, RSC Adv. 9 (2019) 6460-6481. https://doi.org/10.1039/C8RA08088G
[16] P.K. Yadav, S. Chandra, V. Kumar, D. Kumar, S.H. Hasan, Carbon quantum dots: Synthesis, structure, properties, and catalytic applications for organic synthesis, Catalysts 13 (2023) 422. https://doi.org/10.3390/catal13020422
[17] Q. Wang, X. Huang, Y. Long, X. Wang, H. Zhang, R. Zhu, L. Liang, P. Teng, H. Zheng, Hollow luminescent carbon dots for drug delivery, Carbon 59 (2013) 192-199. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbon.2013.03.009
[18] R. Kumar, D.P. Singh, R. Muñoz, M. Amami, R.K. Singh, S. Singh, V. Kumar, Graphene-based materials for biotechnological and biomedical applications: Drug delivery, bioimaging and biosensing, Mater. Today Chem. 33 (2023) 101750. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mtchem.2023.101750
[19] A.A. Guzelian, U. Banin, A.V. Kadavanich, X. Peng, A.P. Alivisatos, Colloidal chemical synthesis and characterization of InAs nanocrystal quantum dots, Appl. Phys. Lett. 69 (1996) 1432-1434. https://doi.org/10.1063/1.117605
[20] S. Das, L. Ngashangva, P. Goswami, Carbon dots: An emerging smart material for analytical applications, Micromachines 12 (2021) 84. https://doi.org/10.3390/mi12010084
[21] M. Pan, X. Xie, K. Liu, J. Yang, L. Hong, S. Wang, Fluorescent carbon quantum dots-synthesis, functionalization and sensing application in food analysis, Nanomaterials 10 (2020) 930. https://doi.org/10.3390/nano10050930
[22] T.J. Pillar-Little, N. Wanninayake, L. Nease, D.K. Heidary, E.C. Glazer, D.Y. Kim, Superior photodynamic effect of carbon quantum dots through both type I and type II pathways: Detailed comparison study of top-down-synthesized and bottom-up-synthesized carbon quantum dots, Carbon 140 (2018) 616-623. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbon.2018.09.004
[23] Z. Bian, A. Wallum, A. Mehmood, E. Gomez, Z. Wang, S. Pandit, S. Nie, S. Link, B.G. Levine, M. Gruebele, Properties of carbon dots versus small molecules from “bottom-up” synthesis, ACS Nano 17 (2023) 22788-22799. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsnano.3c07486
[24] L. Shi, B. Wang, S. Lu, Efficient bottom-up synthesis of graphene quantum dots at an atomically precise level, Matter 6 (2023) 728-760. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matt.2023.01.003
[25] N. Kumar, R. Salehiyan, V. Chauke, O.J. Botlhoko, K. Setshedi, M. Scriba, M. Masukume, S.S. Ray, Top-down synthesis of graphene: A comprehensive review, FlatChem 27 (2021) 100224. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.flatc.2021.100224
[26] W. Wang, Z. Zeng, G. Zeng, C. Zhang, R. Xiao, C. Zhou, W. Xiong, Sulfur-doped carbon quantum dots loaded hollow tubular g-C3N4 as novel photocatalyst for destruction of Escherichia coli and tetracycline degradation under visible light, Chem. Eng. J. 378 (2019) 122132. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2019.122132
[27] A. Prakash, S. Yadav, U. Yadav, P.S. Saxena, A. Srivastava, Recent advances on nitrogen-doped carbon quantum dots and their applications in bioimaging: A review, Bull. Mater. Sci. 46 (2023) 7. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12034-022-02846-7
[28] L. Wang, D. Gu, Y. Su, D. Ji, Y. Yang, K. Chen, H. Pan, W. Pan, Easy synthesis and characterization of novel carbon dots using the one-pot green method for cancer therapy, Pharmaceutics 14 (2022) 2423. https://doi.org/10.3390/pharmaceutics14112423
[29] R.M. El-Shabasy, M.F. Elsadek, B.M. Ahmed, M.F. Farahat, K.N. Mosleh, M.M. Taher, Recent developments in carbon quantum dots: Properties, fabrication techniques, and bio-applications, Processes 9 (2021) 388. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr9020388
[30] N.J. Hunt, G.P. Lockwood, S.W.S. Kang, L.J. Westwood, C. Limantoro, W. Chrzanowski, P.A.G. McCourt, Z. Kuncic, D.G. Le Couteur, V.C. Cogger, Quantum dot nanomedicine formulations dramatically improve pharmacological properties and alter uptake pathways of metformin and nicotinamide mononucleotide in aging mice, ACS Nano 15 (2021) 4710-4727. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsnano.0c09278
[31] U. Badıllı, F. Mollarasouli, N.K. Bakirhan, Y. Ozkan, S.A. Ozkan, Role of quantum dots in pharmaceutical and biomedical analysis, and its application in drug delivery, TrAC Trends Anal. Chem. 131 (2020) 116013. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trac.2020.116013
[32] S. Das, S. Mondal, D. Ghosh, Carbon quantum dots in bioimaging and biomedicines, Front. Bioeng. Biotechnol. 11 (2024) 1333752. https://doi.org/10.3389/fbioe.2023.1333752
[33] F. Wang, Q. Hao, Y. Zhang, Y. Xu, W. Lei, Fluorescence quenchometric method for determination of ferric ion using boron-doped carbon dots, Microchim. Acta 183 (2016) 273-279. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00604-015-1650-1
[34] A. Kalkal, R. Pradhan, S. Kadian, G. Manik, G. Packirisamy, Biofunctionalized graphene quantum dots based fluorescent biosensor toward efficient detection of small cell lung cancer, ACS Appl. Bio Mater. 3 (2020) 4922-4932. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsabm.0c00427
[35] J. Kong, Y. Wei, F. Zhou, L. Shi, S. Zhao, M. Wan, X. Zhang, Carbon quantum dots: Properties, preparation, and applications, Molecules 29 (2024) 2002. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules29092002
[36] A. Karagianni, N.G. Tsierkezos, M. Prato, M. Terrones, K.V. Kordatos, Application of carbon-based quantum dots in photodynamic therapy, Carbon 203 (2023) 273-310. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbon.2022.11.026
[37] M. Fang, L. Lin, M. Zheng, W. Liu, R. Lin, Antibacterial functionalized carbon dots and their application in bacterial infections and inflammation, J. Mater. Chem. B 11 (2023) 9386-9403. https://doi.org/10.1039/D3TB01543B
[38] M.J. Molaei, Principles, mechanisms, and application of carbon quantum dots in sensors: A review, Anal. Methods 12 (2020) 1266-1287. https://doi.org/10.1039/C9AY02696G
[39] Y. Li, X. Zheng, X. Zhang, S. Liu, Q. Pei, M. Zheng, Z. Xie, Porphyrin-based carbon dots for photodynamic therapy of hepatoma, Adv. Healthc. Mater. 6 (2017) 1600924. https://doi.org/10.1002/adhm.201600924
[40] H. Wang, S. Yang, L. Chen, Y. Li, P. He, G. Wang, H. Dong, P. Ma, G. Ding, Tumor diagnosis using carbon-based quantum dots: Detection based on the hallmarks of cancer, Bioact. Mater. 33 (2024) 174-222. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bioactmat.2023.10.004
[41] M.X. Gao, L. Yang, Y. Zheng, X.X. Yang, H.Y. Zou, J. Han, Z.X. Liu, Y.F. Li, C.Z. Huang, “Click” on alkynylated carbon quantum dots: An efficient surface functionalization for specific biosensing and bioimaging, Chem. Eur. J. 23 (2017) 2171-2178. https://doi.org/10.1002/chem.201604963
[42] B. Wang, H. Cai, G.I.N. Waterhouse, X. Qu, B. Yang, S. Lu, Carbon dots in bioimaging, biosensing and therapeutics: A comprehensive review, Small Sci. 2 (2022) 2200012. https://doi.org/10.1002/smsc.202200012
[43] S. Chen, T. Sun, M. Zheng, Z. Xie, Carbon dots based nanoscale covalent organic frameworks for photodynamic therapy, Adv. Funct. Mater. 30 (2020) 2004680. https://doi.org/10.1002/adfm.202004680
[44] M. Cheng, Y. Liu, Q. You, Z. Lei, J. Ji, F. Zhang, W.-F. Dong, L. Li, Metal-doping strategy for carbon-based sonosensitizer in sonodynamic therapy of glioblastoma, Adv. Sci. 11 (2024) 2404230. https://doi.org/10.1002/advs.202404230
[45] P. Garg, S. Sangam, D. Kochhar, S. Pahari, C. Kar, M. Mukherjee, Exploring the role of triazole functionalized heteroatom co-doped carbon quantum dots against human coronaviruses, Nano Today 35 (2020) 101001. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nantod.2020.101001
[46] Q. Liu, X. Ding, Y. Pang, Y. Cao, J. Lei, J. Wu, T. Zhang, New insights into the safety assessment of quantum dots: Potential release pathways, environmental transformations, and health risks, Environ. Sci. Nano 9 (2022) 3277-3311. https://doi.org/10.1039/D2EN00252C
[47] J. Yue, L. Li, C. Jiang, Q. Mei, W.-F. Dong, R. Yan, Riboflavin-based carbon dots with high singlet oxygen generation for photodynamic therapy, J. Mater. Chem. B 9 (2021) 7972-7978. https://doi.org/10.1039/D1TB01291F
[48] G. Bijoy, D. Sangeetha, Biomass derived carbon quantum dots as potential tools for sustainable environmental remediation and eco-friendly food packaging, J. Environ. Chem. Eng. 12 (2024) 113727. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jece.2024.113727
[49] W. Zhang, G. Sigdel, K.J. Mintz, E.S. Seven, Y. Zhou, C. Wang, R.M. Leblanc, Carbon dots: A future blood-brain barrier penetrating nanomedicine and drug nanocarrier, Int. J. Nanomed. (2021) 5003-5016. https://doi.org/10.2147/IJN.S318732
[50] T.A. Geleta, T. Imae, Nanocomposite photoanodes consisting of p-NiO/n-ZnO heterojunction and carbon quantum dot additive for dye-sensitized solar cells, ACS Appl. Nano Mater. 4 (2021) 236-249. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsanm.0c02547
[51] H. Cai, K. Abbas, Y. Yang, Z. Li, H. Bi, The application of carbon dots in tumor immunotherapy: Researches and prospects, Appl. Res. 2 (2023) e202300001. https://doi.org/10.1002/appl.202300001
[52] A.S. Rasal, S. Yadav, A. Yadav, A.A. Kashale, S.T. Manjunatha, A. Altaee, J.-Y. Chang, Carbon quantum dots for energy applications: A review, ACS Appl. Nano Mater. 4 (2021) 6515-6541. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsanm.1c01372
[53] X. Tan, Y. Li, X. Li, S. Zhou, L. Fan, S. Yang, Electrochemical synthesis of small-sized red fluorescent graphene quantum dots as a bioimaging platform, Chem. Commun. 51 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1039/C4CC09332A
[54] Q.-L. Zhao, Z.-L. Zhang, B.-H. Huang, J. Peng, M. Zhang, D.-W. Pang, Facile preparation of low cytotoxicity fluorescent carbon nanocrystals by electrooxidation of graphite, Chem. Commun. 41 (2008) 5116-5118. https://doi.org/10.1039/b812420e
[55] H. Ali, S. Ghosh, N.R. Jana, Fluorescent carbon dots as intracellular imaging probes, Wiley Interdiscip. Rev. Nanomed. Nanobiotechnol. 12 (2020) e1617. https://doi.org/10.1002/wnan.1617
[56] K.O. Boakye-Yiadom, S. Kesse, Y. Opoku-Damoah, M.S. Filli, M. Aquib, M.M.B. Joelle, M.A. Farooq, et al., Carbon dots: Applications in bioimaging and theranostics, Int. J. Pharm. 564 (2019) 308-317. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijpharm.2019.04.055
[57] K. Tungare, M. Bhori, K.S. Racherla, S. Sawant, Synthesis, characterization and biocompatibility studies of carbon quantum dots from Phoenix dactylifera, 3 Biotech 10 (2020) 540. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13205-020-02518-5
[58] G. Rajakumar, X.-H. Zhang, T. Gomathi, S.-F. Wang, M.A. Ansari, G. Mydhili, G. Nirmala, M.A. Alzohairy, I.-M. Chung, Current use of carbon-based materials for biomedical applications-A prospective and review, Processes 8 (2020) 355. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr8030355
[59] X. Jia, J. Li, E. Wang, One-pot green synthesis of optically pH-sensitive carbon dots with upconversion luminescence, Nanoscale 4 (2012) 5572-5575. https://doi.org/10.1039/c2nr31319g
[60] Y. Wang, P. Anilkumar, L. Cao, J.-H. Liu, P.G. Luo, K.N. Tackett, S. Sahu, P. Wang, X. Wang, Y.-P. Sun, Carbon dots of different composition and surface functionalization: Cytotoxicity issues relevant to fluorescence cell imaging, Exp. Biol. Med. 236 (2011) 1231-1238. https://doi.org/10.1258/ebm.2011.011132
[61] J. Liu, R. Li, B. Yang, Carbon dots: A new type of carbon-based nanomaterial with wide applications, ACS Cent. Sci. 6 (2020) 2179-2195. https://doi.org/10.1021/acscentsci.0c01306
[62] A. Cruz-Cruz, G. Gallareta-Olivares, A. Rivas-Sanchez, R.B. González-González, I. Ahmed, R. Parra-Saldivar, H.M.N. Iqbal, Recent advances in carbon dots based biocatalysts for degrading organic pollutants, Curr. Pollut. Rep. 8 (2022) 384-394. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40726-022-00228-5
[63] Z. Li, H. Yu, T. Bian, Y. Zhao, C. Zhou, L. Shang, Y. Liu, L.-Z. Wu, C.-H. Tung, T. Zhang, Highly luminescent nitrogen-doped carbon quantum dots as effective fluorescent probes for mercuric and iodide ions, J. Mater. Chem. C 3 (2015) 1922-1928. https://doi.org/10.1039/C4TC02756F
[64] J. Liu, S. Lu, Q. Tang, K. Zhang, W. Yu, H. Sun, B. Yang, One-step hydrothermal synthesis of photoluminescent carbon nanodots with selective antibacterial activity against Porphyromonas gingivalis, Nanoscale 9 (2017) 7135-7142. https://doi.org/10.1039/C7NR02128C
[65] K. Wang, Z. Ru, J. Shi, Y. Zhu, L. Yang, M. Wei, M. Xiao, N. Liu, F. Wang, N-doped carbon dots as robust fluorescent probes for the rapid detection of hypochlorite, RSC Adv. 12 (2022) 27170-27178. https://doi.org/10.1039/D2RA04477C
[66] H.K. Lin, T.-H. Yan, S. Bashir, J.L. Liu, Synthesis of nanomaterials using bottom-up methods, Adv. Nanomater. Appl. Renew. Energy (2022) 61-110. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-323-99877-2.00003-5
[67] M. Jorns, D. Pappas, A review of fluorescent carbon dots, their synthesis, physical and chemical characteristics, and applications, Nanomaterials 11 (2021) 1448. https://doi.org/10.3390/nano11061448
[68] M. Saleem, M.Y. Naz, S. Shukrullah, M.A. Shujah, M. Akhtar, S. Ullah, S. Ali, One-pot sonochemical preparation of carbon dots, influence of process parameters and potential applications: A review, Carbon Lett. 32 (2022) 39-55. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42823-021-00273-y
[69] H.F. Etefa, V. Kumar, F.B. Dejene, M.T. Efa, L.T. Jule, Modification of flexible electrodes for p-type (nickel oxide) dye-sensitized solar cell performance based on the cellulose nanofiber film, ACS Omega 8 (2023) 15249-15258. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsomega.3c00383
[70] P.D. Modi, V.N. Mehta, V.S. Prajapati, S. Patel, J.V. Rohit, Bottom-up approaches for the preparation of carbon dots, Carbon Dots Anal. Chem. (2023) 15-29. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-323-98350-1.00022-0
[71] H.B. Ahmed, M. El-Shahat, A.K. Allayeh, H.E. Emam, Maillard reaction for nucleation of polymer quantum dots from chitosan-glucose conjugate: Antagonistic for cancer and viral diseases, Int. J. Biol. Macromol. 224 (2023) 858-870. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2022.10.172
[72] K. Bazaka, M.V. Jacob, K. Ostrikov, Sustainable life cycles of natural-precursor-derived nanocarbons, Chem. Rev. 116 (2016) 163-214. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.chemrev.5b00566
[73] P. Namdari, B. Negahdari, A. Eatemadi, Synthesis, properties and biomedical applications of carbon-based quantum dots: An updated review, Biomed. Pharmacother. 87 (2017) 209-222. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopha.2016.12.108
[74] F. Yuan, S. Li, Z. Fan, X. Meng, L. Fan, S. Yang, Shining carbon dots: Synthesis and biomedical and optoelectronic applications, Nano Today 11 (2016) 565-586. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nantod.2016.08.006
[75] L. Chen, C.-F. Wang, C. Liu, S. Chen, Facile access to fabricate carbon dots and perspective of large-scale applications, Small 19 (2023) 2206671. https://doi.org/10.1002/smll.202206671
[76] D.M.A. Crista, J.C.G. Esteves da Silva, L. Pinto da Silva, Evaluation of different bottom-up routes for the fabrication of carbon dots, Nanomaterials 10 (2020) 1316. https://doi.org/10.3390/nano10071316
[77] D. Nagarajan, D. Gangadharan, S. Venkatanarasimhan, Synthetic strategies toward developing carbon dots via top-down approach, Carbon Dots Anal. Chem. (2023) 1-13. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-323-98350-1.00016-5
[78] M. Alafeef, I. Srivastava, T. Aditya, D. Pan, Carbon dots: From synthesis to unraveling the fluorescence mechanism, Small 20 (2024) 2303937. https://doi.org/10.1002/smll.202303937
[79] T.C. Wareing, P. Gentile, A.N. Phan, Biomass-based carbon dots: current development and future perspectives, ACS Nano 15 (2021) 15471-15501. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsnano.1c03886
[80] H. Li, Z. Kang, Y. Liu, S.-T. Lee, Carbon nanodots: Synthesis, properties and applications, J. Mater. Chem. 22 (2012) 24230-24253. https://doi.org/10.1039/c2jm34690g
[81] Y. Wang, A. Hu, Carbon quantum dots: Synthesis, properties and applications, J. Mater. Chem. C 2 (2014) 6921-6939. https://doi.org/10.1039/C4TC00988F
[82] S.N. Baker, G.A. Baker, Luminescent carbon nanodots: Emergent nanolights, Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 49 (2010) 6726-6744. https://doi.org/10.1002/anie.200906623
[83] A. Sharma, J. Das, Small molecules derived carbon dots: Synthesis and applications in sensing, catalysis, imaging, and biomedicine, J. Nanobiotechnol. 17 (2019) 92. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12951-019-0525-8
[84] S. Zhu, Y. Song, X. Zhao, J. Shao, J. Zhang, B. Yang, The photoluminescence mechanism in carbon dots (graphene quantum dots, carbon nanodots, and polymer dots): Current state and future perspective, Nano Res. 8 (2015) 355-381. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12274-014-0644-3
[85] S.Y. Lim, W. Shen, Z. Gao, Carbon quantum dots and their applications, Chem. Soc. Rev. 44 (2015) 362-381. https://doi.org/10.1039/C4CS00269E
[86] A. Pundi, C.-J. Chang, Recent advances in synthesis, modification, characterization, and applications of carbon dots, Polymers 14 (2022) 2153. https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14112153
[87] H. Zeng, X.-W. Du, S.C. Singh, S.A. Kulinich, S. Yang, J. He, W. Cai, Nanomaterials via laser ablation/irradiation in liquid: A review, Adv. Funct. Mater. 22 (2012) 1333-1353. https://doi.org/10.1002/adfm.201102295
[88] V. Amendola, M. Meneghetti, Laser ablation synthesis in solution and size manipulation of noble metal nanoparticles, Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys. 11 (2009) 3805-3821. https://doi.org/10.1039/b900654k
[89] S. Barcikowski, G. Compagnini, Advanced nanoparticle generation and excitation by lasers in liquids, Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys. 15 (2013) 3022-3026. https://doi.org/10.1039/C2CP90132C
[90] J.-P. Sylvestre, A.V. Kabashin, E. Sacher, M. Meunier, J.H.T. Luong, Stabilization and size control of gold nanoparticles during laser ablation in aqueous cyclodextrins, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 126 (2004) 7176-7177. https://doi.org/10.1021/ja048678s
[91] S. Ahirwar, S. Mallick, D. Bahadur, Electrochemical method to prepare graphene quantum dots and graphene oxide quantum dots, ACS Omega 2 (2017) 8343-8353. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsomega.7b01539
[92] M. Chaudhary, Colloidal nanocrystals for optoelectronic devices optically controlled at the nanometric scale, Ph.D. Thesis, Université Paris Sciences et Lettres, 2022.
[93] R.T.K. Baker, M.A. Barber, P.S. Harris, F.S. Feates, R.J. Waite, Nucleation and growth of carbon deposits from the nickel catalyzed decomposition of acetylene, J. Catal. 26 (1972) 51-62. https://doi.org/10.1016/0021-9517(72)90032-2
[94] M. Remškar, Inorganic nanotubes, Adv. Mater. 16 (2004) 1497-1504. https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.200306428
[95] R. Tenne, C.N.R. Rao, Inorganic nanotubes, Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. A 362 (2004) 2099-2125. https://doi.org/10.1098/rsta.2004.1431
[96] A. Zhao, Z. Chen, C. Zhao, N. Gao, J. Ren, X. Qu, Recent advances in bioapplications of C-dots, Carbon 85 (2015) 309-327. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbon.2014.12.045
[97] Y. Song, S. Zhu, S. Zhang, Y. Fu, L. Wang, X. Zhao, B. Yang, Investigation from chemical structure to photoluminescent mechanism: A type of carbon dots from the pyrolysis of citric acid and an amine, J. Mater. Chem. C 3 (2015) 5976-5984. https://doi.org/10.1039/C5TC00813A
[98] S. Zhu, Q. Meng, L. Wang, J. Zhang, Y. Song, H. Jin, K. Zhang, H. Sun, H. Wang, B. Yang, Highly photoluminescent carbon dots for multicolor patterning, sensors, and bioimaging, Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 52 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1002/anie.201300519
[99] B. Chen, F. Li, S. Li, W. Weng, H. Guo, T. Guo, X. Zhang, et al., Large scale synthesis of photoluminescent carbon nanodots and their application for bioimaging, Nanoscale 5 (2013) 1967-1971. https://doi.org/10.1039/c2nr32675b
[100] Y. Dong, R. Wang, H. Li, J. Shao, Y. Chi, X. Lin, G. Chen, Polyamine-functionalized carbon quantum dots for chemical sensing, Carbon 50 (2012) 2810-2815. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbon.2012.02.046
[101] B.I. Kharisov, O.V. Kharissova, U. Ortiz Mendez, Microwave hydrothermal and solvothermal processing of materials and compounds, The Development and Application of Microwave Heating 5 (2012) 107-140. https://doi.org/10.5772/45626
[102] J. Shen, Y. Zhu, X. Yang, C. Li, Graphene quantum dots: Emergent nanolights for bioimaging, sensors, catalysis and photovoltaic devices, Chem. Commun. 48 (2012) 3686-3699. https://doi.org/10.1039/c2cc00110a
[103] K. Hola, Y. Zhang, Y. Wang, E.P. Giannelis, R. Zboril, A.L. Rogach, Carbon dots-emerging light emitters for bioimaging, cancer therapy and optoelectronics, Nano Today 9 (2014) 590-603. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nantod.2014.09.004
[104] D. Ozyurt, M. Al Kobaisi, R.K. Hocking, B. Fox, Properties, synthesis, and applications of carbon dots: A review, Carbon Trends 12 (2023) 100276. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cartre.2023.100276
[105] J. Fan, L. Kang, X. Cheng, D. Liu, S. Zhang, Biomass-derived carbon dots and their sensing applications, Nanomaterials 12 (2022) 4473. https://doi.org/10.3390/nano12244473
[106] F. Du, Z. Cheng, W. Tan, L. Sun, G. Ruan, Development of sulfur-doped carbon quantum dots for highly selective and sensitive fluorescent detection of Fe²⁺ and Fe³⁺ ions in oral ferrous gluconate samples, Spectrochim. Acta A Mol. Biomol. Spectrosc. 226 (2020) 117602. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.saa.2019.117602
[107] F. Wang, Y.H. Chen, C.Y. Liu, D.G. Ma, White light-emitting devices based on carbon dots’ electroluminescence, Chem. Commun. 47 (2011) 3502-3504. https://doi.org/10.1039/c0cc05391k
[108] L. Tang, R. Ji, X. Cao, J. Lin, H. Jiang, X. Li, K.S. Teng et al., Deep ultraviolet photoluminescence of water-soluble self-passivated graphene quantum dots, ACS Nano 6 (2012) 5102-5110. https://doi.org/10.1021/nn300760g
[109] J. Wang, J. Wei, S. Su, J. Qiu, Novel fluorescence resonance energy transfer optical sensors for vitamin B₁₂ detection using thermally reduced carbon dots, New J. Chem. 39 (2015) 501-507. https://doi.org/10.1039/C4NJ00538D
[110] J. Zhou, C. Booker, R. Li, X. Zhou, T.K. Sham, X. Sun, Z. Ding, An electrochemical avenue to blue luminescent nanocrystals from multiwalled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs), J. Am. Chem. Soc. 129 (2007) 744-745. https://doi.org/10.1021/ja0669070
[111] V.P. Madhurima, K. Kumari, P.K. Jain, Synthesis and study of carbon nanomaterials through arc discharge technique for efficient adsorption of organic dyes, Diam. Relat. Mater. 141 (2024) 110538. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.diamond.2023.110538
[112] N. Ullal, K. Muthamma, D. Sunil, Carbon dots from eco-friendly precursors for optical sensing application: An up-to-date review, Chem. Pap. 76 (2022) 6097-6127. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11696-022-02353-3
[113] Ngafwan, H. Rasyid, E.S. Abood, W.K. Abdelbasset, S.G. Al-Shawi, D. Bokov, A.T. Jalil, Study on novel fluorescent carbon nanomaterials in food analysis, Food Sci. Technol. 42 (2021) e37821. https://doi.org/10.1590/fst.37821
[114] L. Cao, J. Li, Y. Song, S. Cong, H. Wang, M. Tan, Molecular interaction of fluorescent carbon dots from mature vinegar with human hemoglobin: Insights from spectroscopy, thermodynamics and AFM, Int. J. Biol. Macromol. 167 (2021) 415-422. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2020.11.203
[115] A. Kurdekar, L.A.A. Chunduri, E.P. Bulagonda, M.K. Haleyurgirisetty, V. Kamisetti, I.K. Hewlett, Comparative performance evaluation of carbon dot-based paper immunoassay on Whatman filter paper and nitrocellulose paper in the detection of HIV infection, Microfluid. Nanofluidics 20 (2016) 99. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10404-016-1763-9
[116] N. Greiner, D.S. Phillips, J.D. Johnson, F. Volk, Diamonds in detonation soot, Nature 333 (1988) 440-442. https://doi.org/10.1038/333440a0
[117] S. Quraishi, S.F. Plappert, T. Grießer, W. Gindl-Altmutter, F.W. Liebner, Chemical versus physical grafting of photoluminescent amino-functional carbon dots onto transparent nematic nanocellulose gels and aerogels, Cellulose 26 (2019) 7781-7796. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10570-019-02619-2
[118] J. Zhao, Q. Song, F. Wu, X. Guo, T. Xu, Green synthesis of N-doped carbon quantum dots for the detection of nitrite ion in water sample, IOP Conf. Ser.: Earth Environ. Sci. 344 (2019) 012068. https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/344/1/012068
[119] B. De, N. Karak, A green and facile approach for the synthesis of water soluble fluorescent carbon dots from banana juice, RSC Adv. 3 (2013) 8286-8290. https://doi.org/10.1039/c3ra00088e
[120] N. Azam, M.N. Ali, T.J. Khan, Carbon quantum dots for biomedical applications: Review and analysis, Front. Mater. 8 (2021) 700403. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmats.2021.700403
[121] D.Y. Osadchii, A.I. Olivos-Suarez, A.V. Bavykina, J. Gascon, Revisiting nitrogen species in covalent triazine frameworks, Langmuir 33 (2017) 14278-14285. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.langmuir.7b02929