Carbon Quantum Dots in Fuel Cell Applications: Catalysts for Oxygen Reduction Reaction and Membranes
Nuha Noor, Mariom Jahan, Gulshan Ara, Md. Abu Bin Hasan Susan
The study of carbon quantum dots (CQDs) represents an intriguing area of contemporary research. CQDs can be easily synthesized with superior electrochemical properties to develop metal-free carbon-based electrocatalysts and proton exchange membranes (PEMs). CQDs have the potential to show superior proton conduction and outstanding catalytic performance in oxygen reduction reaction (ORR). This chapter comprehends the fundamental ideas behind the synthesis and application of CQDs as active catalysts for facile ORR kinetics and advanced PEM in fuel cells. An extensive review has been made to address the challenges in preparing and implementing CQDs as electrocatalysts and PEMs to improve performance and selectivity in fuel cells, ensuring a clean, efficient, and sustainable energy conversion.
Keywords
Carbon Quantum Dots, Fuel Cell, Oxygen Reduction Reaction, Carbon-based Electrocatalyst, Proton Exchange Membrane
Published online 11/15/2026, 32 pages
Citation: Nuha Noor, Mariom Jahan, Gulshan Ara, Md. Abu Bin Hasan Susan, Carbon Quantum Dots in Fuel Cell Applications: Catalysts for Oxygen Reduction Reaction and Membranes, Materials Research Foundations, Vol. 197, pp 337-368, 2026
DOI: https://doi.org/10.21741/9781644904435-13
Part of the book on Carbon Quantum Dots
References
[1] Y. Xu, N. Gao, Y. Gong, S. Huo, M.M. Mohideen, S. Hong, Y. Liu, Controllable preparation of methyltriethoxysilane xerogel nanofibers, J. Mater. Sci. 54 (2019) 10130-10140. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10853-019-03629-y
[2] B.C.M. Martindale, G.A.M. Hutton, C.A. Caputo, E. Reisner, Solar hydrogen production using carbon quantum dots and a molecular nickel catalyst, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 137 (2015) 6018-6025. https://doi.org/10.1021/jacs.5b01650
[3] Q. Wang, X. Huang, Y. Long, X. Wang, H. Zhang, R. Zhu, L. Liang, P. Teng, H. Zheng, Hollow luminescent carbon dots for drug delivery, Carbon 59 (2013) 192-199. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbon.2013.03.009
[4] H.M.R. Gonçalves, A.J. Duarte, J.C.G. Esteves da Silva, Optical fiber sensor for Hg(II) based on carbon dots, Biosens. Bioelectron. 26 (2010) 1302-1306. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bios.2010.07.018
[5] H. Li, X. He, Z. Kang, H. Huang, Y. Liu, J. Liu, S. Lian, C.H.A. Tsang, X. Yang, S. Lee, Water‐soluble fluorescent carbon quantum dots and photocatalyst design, Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 49 (2010) 4430-4434. https://doi.org/10.1002/anie.200906154
[6] J. Plácido, S. Bustamante-López, K.E. Meissner, D.E. Kelly, S.L. Kelly, Microalgae biochar-derived carbon dots and their application in heavy metal sensing in aqueous systems, Sci. Total Environ. 656 (2019) 531-539. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.11.393
[7] X.-J. Mao, H.-Z. Zheng, Y.-J. Long, J. Du, J.-Y. Hao, L.-L. Wang, D.-B. Zhou, Study on the fluorescence characteristics of carbon dots, Spectrochim. Acta A: Mol. Biomol. Spectrosc. 75 (2010) 553-557. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.saa.2009.11.015
[8] L. Cao, K.A. Shiral Fernando, W. Liang, A. Seilkop, L. Monica Veca, Y.-P. Sun, C.E. Bunker, Carbon dots for energy conversion applications, J. Appl. Phys. 125 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1063/1.5094032
[9] B.C.H. Steele, A. Heinzel, Materials for fuel-cell technologies, Nature 414 (2001) 345-352. https://doi.org/10.1038/35104620
[10] Y. Li, M. Gong, Y. Liang, J. Feng, J.-E. Kim, H. Wang, G. Hong, B. Zhang, H. Dai, Advanced zinc-air batteries based on high-performance hybrid electrocatalysts, Nat. Commun. 4 (2013) 1805. https://doi.org/10.1038/ncomms2812
[11] A. Chen, P. Holt-Hindle, Platinum-based nanostructured materials: synthesis, properties, and applications, Chem. Rev. 110 (2010) 3767-3804. https://doi.org/10.1021/cr9003902
[12] A. Morozan, B. Jousselme, S. Palacin, Low-platinum and platinum-free catalysts for the oxygen reduction reaction at fuel cell cathodes, Energy Environ. Sci. 4 (2011) 1238. https://doi.org/10.1039/c0ee00601g
[13] H.A. Gasteiger, S.S. Kocha, B. Sompalli, F.T. Wagner, Activity benchmarks and requirements for Pt, Pt-alloy, and non-Pt oxygen reduction catalysts for PEMFCs, Appl. Catal.,B 56 (2005) 9-35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apcatb.2004.06.021
[14] X.-W. Liu, W.-W. Li, H.-Q. Yu, Cathodic catalysts in bioelectrochemical systems for energy recovery from wastewater, Chem. Soc. Rev. 43 (2014) 7718-7745. https://doi.org/10.1039/C3CS60130G
[15] V.A. Paganin, E.A. Ticianelli, E.R. Gonzalez, Development and electrochemical studies of gas diffusion electrodes for polymer electrolyte fuel cells, J. Appl. Electrochem. 26 (1996). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00242099
[16] J.J. Pietron, Y. Garsany, O. Baturina, K.E. Swider-Lyons, R.M. Stroud, D.E. Ramaker, T.L. Schull, Electrochemical observation of ligand effects on oxygen reduction at ligand-stabilized Pt nanoparticle electrocatalysts, Electrochem. Solid-State Lett. 11 (2008) B161. https://doi.org/10.1149/1.2937448
[17] J. Mitzel, F. Arena, H. Natter, T. Walter, M. Batzer, M. Stefener, R. Hempelmann, Electrodeposition of PEM fuel cell catalysts by the use of a hydrogen depolarized anode, Int. J. Hydrogen Energy 37 (2012) 6261-6267. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2011.09.063
[18] Y. Shao, Y. Cheng, W. Duan, W. Wang, Y. Lin, Y. Wang, J. Liu, Nanostructured electrocatalysts for PEM fuel cells and redox flow batteries: a selected review, ACS Catal. 5 (2015) 7288-7298. https://doi.org/10.1021/acscatal.5b01737
[19] C. Coutanceau, M.J. Croissant, T. Napporn, C. Lamy, Electrocatalytic reduction of dioxygen at platinum particles dispersed in a polyaniline film, Electrochim. Acta 46 (2000) 579-588. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0013-4686(00)00641-1
[20] S.A. Kumar, S.-M. Chen, Electrocatalytic reduction of oxygen and hydrogen peroxide at poly(p-aminobenzene sulfonic acid)-modified glassy carbon electrodes, J. Mol. Catal. A: Chem. 278 (2007) 244-250. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.molcata.2007.09.023
[21] C. Li, D.-H. Zhao, H.-L. Long, M. Li, Recent advances in carbonized non-noble metal-organic frameworks for electrochemical catalyst of oxygen reduction reaction, Rare Met. 40 (2021) 2657-2689. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12598-020-01694-w
[22] Y.-G. Zhu, C.-Q. Shang, Z.-Y. Wang, J.-Q. Zhang, M.-Y. Yang, H. Cheng, Z.-G. Lu, Co and N co-modified carbon nanotubes as efficient electrocatalyst for oxygen reduction reaction, Rare Met. 40 (2021) 90-95. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12598-019-01270-x
[23] R. Ma, G. Lin, Y. Zhou, Q. Liu, T. Zhang, G. Shan, M. Yang, J. Wang, A review of oxygen reduction mechanisms for metal-free carbon-based electrocatalysts, npj Comput. Mater. 5 (2019) 78. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41524-019-0210-3
[24] Q. Li, S. Zhang, L. Dai, L. Li, Nitrogen-doped colloidal graphene quantum dots and their size-dependent electrocatalytic activity for the oxygen reduction reaction, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 134 (2012) 18932-18935. https://doi.org/10.1021/ja309270h
[25] M. Jouin, R. Gouriveau, D. Hissel, M.-C. Péra, N. Zerhouni, Prognostics and health management of PEMFC – state of the art and remaining challenges, Int. J. Hydrogen Energy 38 (2013) 15307-15317. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2013.09.051
[26] A. Khaligh, Zhihao Li, Battery, ultracapacitor, fuel cell, and hybrid energy storage systems for electric, hybrid electric, fuel cell, and plug-in hybrid electric vehicles: state of the art, IEEE Trans. Veh. Technol. 59 (2010) 2806-2814. https://doi.org/10.1109/TVT.2010.2047877
[27] N.P. Cele, S. Sinha-Ray, J. Munda, A.A. Jimoh, The state of the art proton exchange membrane fuel cells for clean energy, in: 2010 IEEE International Energy Conference, IEEE, 2010: pp. 865-869. https://doi.org/10.1109/ENERGYCON.2010.5771804
[28] W. Jia, B. Tang, P. Wu, Carbon dots with multi-functional groups and the application in proton exchange membranes, Electrochim. Acta 260 (2018) 92-100. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electacta.2017.11.047
[29] Y. Zhang, T.-S. Chung, Graphene oxide membranes for nanofiltration, Curr. Opin. Chem. Eng. 16 (2017) 9-15. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coche.2017.03.002
[30] D.L. Zhao, T.-S. Chung, Applications of carbon quantum dots (CQDs) in membrane technologies: A review, Water Res. 147 (2018) 43-49. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2018.09.040
[31] P. Bhol, S. Yadav, A. Altaee, M. Saxena, P.K. Misra, A.K. Samal, Graphene-based membranes for water and wastewater treatment: a review, ACS Appl. Nano Mater. 4 (2021) 3274-3293. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsanm.0c03439
[32] S. Yadav, H. Saleem, I. Ibrar, O. Naji, A.A. Hawari, A.A. Alanezi, S.J. Zaidi, A. Altaee, J. Zhou, Recent developments in forward osmosis membranes using carbon-based nanomaterials, Desalination 482 (2020) 114375. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2020.114375
[33] W. Gai, D.L. Zhao, T.-S. Chung, Thin film nanocomposite hollow fiber membranes comprising Na+-functionalized carbon quantum dots for brackish water desalination, Water Res. 154 (2019) 54-61. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2019.01.043
[34] D.L. Zhao, S. Das, T.-S. Chung, Carbon quantum dots grafted antifouling membranes for osmotic power generation via pressure-retarded osmosis process, Environ. Sci. Technol. 51 (2017) 14016-14023. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.7b04190
[35] N.A.A. Nazri, N.H. Azeman, Y. Luo, A.A. A Bakar, Carbon quantum dots for optical sensor applications: a review, Opt. Laser. Technol. 139 (2021) 106928. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.optlastec.2021.106928
[36] Y. Song, S. Zhu, B. Yang, Bioimaging based on fluorescent carbon dots, RSC Adv. 4 (2014) 27184. https://doi.org/10.1039/c3ra47994c
[37] Z. Qian, J. Zhou, J. Chen, C. Wang, C. Chen, H. Feng, Nanosized N-doped graphene oxide with visible fluorescence in water for metal ion sensing, J. Mater. Chem. 21 (2011) 17635. https://doi.org/10.1039/c1jm13430b
[38] Q. Wang, H. Zheng, Y. Long, L. Zhang, M. Gao, W. Bai, Microwave-hydrothermal synthesis of fluorescent carbon dots from graphite oxide, Carbon 49 (2011) 3134-3140. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbon.2011.03.041
[39] M.M. Mohideen, Y. Liu, S. Ramakrishna, Recent progress of carbon dots and carbon nanotubes applied in oxygen reduction reaction of fuel cell for transportation, Appl. Energy 257 (2020) 114027. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2019.114027
[40] X. Wang, Y. Feng, P. Dong, J. Huang, A mini review on carbon quantum dots: preparation, properties, and electrocatalytic application, Front. Chem. 7 (2019). https://doi.org/10.3389/fchem.2019.00671
[41] C. Hu, M. Li, J. Qiu, Y.-P. Sun, Design and fabrication of carbon dots for energy conversion and storage, Chem. Soc. Rev. 48 (2019) 2315-2337. https://doi.org/10.1039/C8CS00750K
[42] B. Liu, S. Han, Determination of trace hydrogen sulfide by using the permanganate induced chemiluminescence of carbon dots, Microchim. Acta 183 (2016) 3087-3092. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00604-016-1957-6
[43] A. Kongkanand, M.F. Mathias, The priority and challenge of high-power performance of low-platinum proton-exchange membrane fuel cells, J. Phys. Chem. Lett. 7 (2016) 1127-1137. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.jpclett.6b00216
[44] M.M. Whiston, I.L. Azevedo, S. Litster, K.S. Whitefoot, C. Samaras, J.F. Whitacre, Expert assessments of the cost and expected future performance of proton exchange membrane fuel cells for vehicles, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 116 (2019) 4899-4904. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1804221116
[45] M.F.L. De Volder, S.H. Tawfick, R.H. Baughman, A.J. Hart, Carbon nanotubes: present and future commercial applications, Science 339 (2013) 535-539. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1222453
[46] C. Chen, Z. Sun, Y. Li, L. Yi, H. Hu, Self-assembly of N doped 3D porous carbon frameworks from carbon quantum dots and its application for oxygen reduction reaction, J. Mater. Sci.: Mater. Electron. 28 (2017) 12660-12669. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10854-017-7091-3
[47] L. Zhou, P. Fu, Y. Wang, L. Sun, Y. Yuan, Microbe-engaged synthesis of carbon dot-decorated reduced graphene oxide as high-performance oxygen reduction catalysts, J. Mater. Chem. A 4 (2016) 7222-7229. https://doi.org/10.1039/C6TA01662F
[48] P. Zhang, J.-S. Wei, X.-B. Chen, H.-M. Xiong, Heteroatom-doped carbon dots based catalysts for oxygen reduction reactions, J. Colloid Interface Sci. 537 (2019) 716-724. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcis.2018.11.024
[49] M.A.B.H. Susan, A. Noda, M. Watanabe, Brønsted acid-base ionic liquids as fuel cell electrolytes under nonhumidifying conditions, ACS Symp. Ser. 2005: pp. 199-215. https://doi.org/10.1021/bk-2005-0902.ch016
[50] A.C. Fărcaş, P. Dobra, Adaptive control of membrane conductivity of PEM fuel cell, Proc.Technol. 12 (2014) 42-49. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.protcy.2013.12.454
[51] S. Patowary, R. Chetry, C. Goswami, B. Chutia, P. Bharali, Oxygen reduction reaction catalysed by supported nanoparticles: advancements and challenges, ChemCatChem 14 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1002/cctc.202101472
[52] O.Z. Sharaf, M.F. Orhan, An overview of fuel cell technology: fundamentals and applications, Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 32 (2014) 810-853. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2014.01.012
[53] A. de Frank Bruijn, G.J.M. Janssen, PEM fuel cell materials: costs, performance and durability, in: KD. Kreuer (Ed.), Fuel Cells, Springer, New York, NY, 2013, pp. 249-303. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-5785-5_9
[54] M.A.B.H. Susan, A. Noda, S. Mitsushima, M. Watanabe, Brønsted acid-base ionic liquids and their use as new materials for anhydrous proton conductors, Chem. Commun. (2003) 938. https://doi.org/10.1039/b300959a
[55] M. Watanabe, H. Nakamoto, M. Shiote, A. Ogawa, Brønsted acid-base ionic liquids and ion-gels for fuel cell electrolytes under non-humidifying and meso-thermal conditions, ECS Meeting Abstracts MA2007-02 (2007) 433-433. https://doi.org/10.1149/MA2007-02/9/433
[56] M. K. Rahman, G. Aiba, M. A. B.H. Susan, M. Watanabe, Proton exchange membranes based on sulfonimide for fuel cell applications, Electrochim. Acta 50 (2004) 633-638. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electacta.2003.12.077
[57] M.S. Miran, T. Yasuda, M.A.B.H. Susan, K. Dokko, M. Watanabe, Binary protic ionic liquid mixtures as a proton conductor: high fuel cell reaction activity and facile proton transport, J. Phys. Chem. C 118 (2014) 27631-27639. https://doi.org/10.1021/jp506957y
[58] M.S. Miran, T. Yasuda, R. Tatara, M. A.B.H. Susan, M. Watanabe, Amphoteric water as acid and base for protic ionic liquids and their electrochemical activity when used as fuel cell electrolytes, Faraday Discuss. 206 (2018) 353-364. https://doi.org/10.1039/C7FD00132K
[59] M.S. Miran, T. Yasuda, M.A.B.H. Susan, K. Dokko, M. Watanabe, Protic ionic liquids as fuel cell electrolytes: contrast and similarities between bulk and electrochemical properties, ECS Meeting Abstracts MA2012-02 (2012) 3623-3623. https://doi.org/10.1149/MA2012-02/53/3623
[60] M.H. Hasan, M.H. Jihad, M.A.B.H. Susan, Biopolymers for fuel cells, ACS Symp. Ser. 2024: pp. 121-142. https://doi.org/10.1021/bk-2024-1487.ch007
[61] J.K. Nørskov, J. Rossmeisl, A. Logadottir, L. Lindqvist, J.R. Kitchin, T. Bligaard, H. Jónsson, Origin of the overpotential for oxygen reduction at a fuel-cell cathode, J. Phys. Chem. B 108 (2004) 17886-17892. https://doi.org/10.1021/jp047349j
[62] J.X. Wang, F.A. Uribe, T.E. Springer, J. Zhang, R.R. Adzic, Intrinsic kinetic equation for oxygen reduction reaction in acidic media: the double Tafel slope and fuel cell applications, Faraday Discuss. 140 (2009) 347-362. https://doi.org/10.1039/B802218F
[63] M.V. Kannan, G. Gnana kumar, Current status, key challenges and its solutions in the design and development of graphene based ORR catalysts for the microbial fuel cell applications, Biosens. Bioelectron. 77 (2016) 1208-1220. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bios.2015.10.018
[64] M. Klingele, C. Van Pham, A. Fischer, S. Thiele, A review on metal‐free doped carbon materials used as oxygen reduction catalysts in solid electrolyte proton exchange fuel cells, Fuel Cells 16 (2016) 522-529. https://doi.org/10.1002/fuce.201600113
[65] X. Ge, A. Sumboja, D. Wuu, T. An, B. Li, F.W.T. Goh, T.S.A. Hor, Y. Zong, Z. Liu, Oxygen reduction in alkaline media: from mechanisms to recent advances of catalysts, ACS Catal. 5 (2015) 4643-4667. https://doi.org/10.1021/acscatal.5b00524
[66] N. Ramaswamy, S. Mukerjee, Influence of inner- and outer-sphere electron transfer mechanisms during electrocatalysis of oxygen reduction in alkaline media, J. Phys. Chem. C 115 (2011) 18015-18026. https://doi.org/10.1021/jp204680p
[67] Z. Zhao, C. Chen, Z. Liu, J. Huang, M. Wu, H. Liu, Y. Li, Y. Huang, Pt‐based nanocrystal for electrocatalytic oxygen reduction, Adv. Mater. 31 (2019) 1808115. https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.201808115
[68] X. Tian, X.F. Lu, B.Y. Xia, X.W. (David) Lou, Advanced electrocatalysts for the oxygen reduction reaction in energy conversion technologies, Joule 4 (2020) 45-68. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joule.2019.12.014
[69] H.S. Wroblowa, Yen-Chi-Pan, G. Razumney, Electroreduction of oxygen, J. Electroanal. Chem. Interfacial Electrochem. 69 (1976) 195-201. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0022-0728(76)80250-1
[70] M. Shao, P. Liu, R.R. Adzic, Superoxide Anion is the Intermediate in the Oxygen Reduction Reaction on Platinum Electrodes, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 128 (2006) 7408-7409. https://doi.org/10.1021/ja061246s
[71] K. Zeng, X. Zheng, C. Li, J. Yan, J. Tian, C. Jin, P. Strasser, R. Yang, Recent advances in non‐noble bifunctional oxygen electrocatalysts toward large‐scale production, Adv. Funct. Mater. 30 (2020) 2000503. https://doi.org/10.1002/adfm.202000503
[72] K.K. Hazarika, C. Goswami, H. Saikia, B.J. Borah, P. Bharali, Cubic Mn2O3 nanoparticles on carbon as bifunctional electrocatalyst for oxygen reduction and oxygen evolution reactions, Mol. Catal. 451 (2018) 153-160. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mcat.2017.12.012
[73] Y. Lin, X. Cui, C. Yen, C.M. Wai, Platinum/carbon nanotube nanocomposite synthesized in supercritical fluid as electrocatalysts for low-temperature fuel cells, J. Phys. Chem. B 109 (2005) 14410-14415. https://doi.org/10.1021/jp0514675
[74] E.Y.L. Teo, L. Muniandy, E.-P. Ng, F. Adam, A.R. Mohamed, R. Jose, K.F. Chong, High surface area activated carbon from rice husk as a high performance supercapacitor electrode, Electrochim. Acta. 192 (2016) 110-119. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electacta.2016.01.140
[75] G. Bhanjana, N. Dilbaghi, K.-H. Kim, S. Kumar, Carbon nanotubes as sorbent material for removal of cadmium, J. Mol. Liq. 242 (2017) 966-970. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.molliq.2017.07.072
[76] R. Bahru, N. Shaari, M.A. Mohamed, Allotrope carbon materials in thermal interface materials and fuel cell applications: A review, Int. J. Energy Res. 44 (2020) 2471-2498. https://doi.org/10.1002/er.5077
[77] J. Patel, B. Jain, A.K. Singh, M.A.B.H. Susan, L. Jean-Paul, Mn-doped ZnS quantum dots-an effective nanoscale sensor, Microchem. J. 155 (2020) 104755. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.microc.2020.104755
[78] J. Patel, A.K. Singh, B. Jain, S. Yadav, S.A.C. Carabineiro, M.A.B.H. Susan, Solochrome dark blue azo dye removal by sonophotocatalysis using Mn2+ doped ZnS quantum dots, Catalysts 11 (2021) 1025. https://doi.org/10.3390/catal11091025
[79] S. Sreevidya, S. Yadav, S. Sanwaria, Y. Katre, A. Kotasthane, R.S. Kumar, A.K. Singh, M.A.B.H. Susan, Phyto-nano-MgO quantum dots by ultrasonic formulation for evaluation of toxin In-Vivo/Vitro/Silico sequels, Chem. Eng. J. 483 (2024) 149089. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2024.149089
[80] V.C. Hoang, K. Dave, V.G. Gomes, Carbon quantum dot-based composites for energy storage and electrocatalysis: Mechanism, applications and future prospects, Nano Energy 66 (2019) 104093. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nanoen.2019.104093
[81] D. Srivastava, T. Susi, M. Borghei, L. Kari, Dissociation of oxygen on pristine and nitrogen-doped carbon nanotubes: a spin-polarized density functional study, RSC Adv. 4 (2014) 15225-15235. https://doi.org/10.1039/C3RA47784C
[82] M. Borghei, J. Lehtonen, L. Liu, O.J. Rojas, Advanced biomass‐derived electrocatalysts for the oxygen reduction reaction, Adv. Mater. 30 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.201703691
[83] J. Liu, S. Zhao, C. Li, M. Yang, Y. Yang, Y. Liu, Y. Lifshitz, S. Lee, Z. Kang, Carbon nanodot surface modifications initiate highly efficient, stable catalysts for both oxygen evolution and reduction reactions, Adv. Energy Mater. 6 (2016) 1502039. https://doi.org/10.1002/aenm.201502039
[84] H. Zhang, Y. Wang, D. Wang, Y. Li, X. Liu, P. Liu, H. Yang, T. An, Z. Tang, H. Zhao, Hydrothermal transformation of dried grass into graphitic carbon‐based high performance electrocatalyst for oxygen reduction reaction, Small 10 (2014) 3371-3378. https://doi.org/10.1002/smll.201400781
[85] C. Chen, Z. Sun, Y. Li, L. Yi, H. Hu, Self-assembly of N doped 3D porous carbon frameworks from carbon quantum dots and its application for oxygen reduction reaction, J. Mater. Sci.: Mater. Electron. 32 (2021) 12743-12744. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10854-021-05873-y
[86] M.F. Gomes, Y.F. Gomes, A. Lopes-Moriyama, E.L. de Barros Neto, C.P. de Souza, Design of carbon quantum dots via hydrothermal carbonization synthesis from renewable precursors, Biomass Convers Biorefin 9 (2019) 689-694. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13399-019-00387-4
[87] Y. Han, D. Tang, Y. Yang, C. Li, W. Kong, H. Huang, Y. Liu, Z. Kang, Non-metal single/dual doped carbon quantum dots: a general flame synthetic method and electro-catalytic properties, Nanoscale 7 (2015) 5955-5962. https://doi.org/10.1039/C4NR07116F
[88] Y. Zhai, B. Zhang, R. Shi, S. Zhang, Y. Liu, B. Wang, K. Zhang, G.I.N. Waterhouse, T. Zhang, S. Lu, Carbon dots as new building blocks for electrochemical energy storage and electrocatalysis, Adv. Energy Mater. 12 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1002/aenm.202103426
[89] T. Van Tam, S.G. Kang, K.F. Babu, E.-S. Oh, S.G. Lee, W.M. Choi, Synthesis of B-doped graphene quantum dots as a metal-free electrocatalyst for the oxygen reduction reaction, J. Mater. Chem. A 5 (2017) 10537-10543. https://doi.org/10.1039/C7TA01485F
[90] A.R. Nallayagari, E. Sgreccia, L. Pasquini, F. Vacandio, S. Kaciulis, M.L. Di Vona, P. Knauth, Catalytic electrodes for the oxygen reduction reaction based on co-doped (B-N, Si-N, S-N) carbon quantum dots and anion exchange ionomer, Electrochim. Acta. 427 (2022) 140861. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electacta.2022.140861
[91] H. Fei, R. Ye, G. Ye, Y. Gong, Z. Peng, X. Fan, E.L.G. Samuel, P.M. Ajayan, J.M. Tour, Boron- and nitrogen-doped graphene quantum dots/graphene hybrid nanoplatelets as efficient electrocatalysts for oxygen reduction, ACS Nano 8 (2014) 10837-10843. https://doi.org/10.1021/nn504637y
[92] G. Ma, G. Ning, Q. Wei, S-doped carbon materials: Synthesis, properties and applications, Carbon 195 (2022) 328-340. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbon.2022.03.043
[93] S.J. Peighambardoust, S. Rowshanzamir, M. Amjadi, Review of the proton exchange membranes for fuel cell applications, Int. J. Hydrogen Energy 35 (2010) 9349-9384. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2010.05.017
[94] F.A. de Bruijn, R.C. Makkus, R.K.A.M. Mallant, G.J.M. Janssen, Materials for state-of-the-art PEM fuel cells, and their suitability for operation above 100°C, in: T.S. Zhao, K.-D. Kreuer, Trung Van Nguyen (Eds.), Advances in Fuel Cells, 2007, 235-336. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1752-301X(07)80010-X
[95] G. Marsh, Membranes fit for a revolution, Mater. Today 6 (2003) 38-43. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1369-7021(03)00333-X
[96] Q. Li, J.O. Jensen, R.F. Savinell, N.J. Bjerrum, High temperature proton exchange membranes based on polybenzimidazoles for fuel cells, Prog. Polym. Sci. 34 (2009) 449-477. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.progpolymsci.2008.12.003
[97] A.K. Mishra, S. Bose, T. Kuila, N.H. Kim, J.H. Lee, Silicate-based polymer-nanocomposite membranes for polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells, Prog. Polym. Sci. 37 (2012) 842-869. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.progpolymsci.2011.11.002
[98] S. Bose, T. Kuila, T.X.H. Nguyen, N.H. Kim, K. Lau, J.H. Lee, Polymer membranes for high temperature proton exchange membrane fuel cell: Recent advances and challenges, Prog. Polym. Sci. 36 (2011) 813-843. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.progpolymsci.2011.01.003
[99] K. Min, A.Z. Al Munsur, S.Y. Paek, S. Jeon, S.Y. Lee, T.-H. Kim, Development of high-performance polymer electrolyte membranes through the application of quantum dot coatings to Nafion membranes, ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 15 (2023) 15616-15624. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.3c01289
[100] K. Kreuer, A. Rabenau, W. Weppner, Vehicle mechanism, a new model for the interpretation of the conductivity of fast proton conductors, Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 21 (1982) 208-209. https://doi.org/10.1002/anie.198202082
[101] K.-D. Kreuer, Proton conductivity: materials and applications, Chem. Mater. 8 (1996) 610-641. https://doi.org/10.1021/cm950192a
[102] P. Colomban, A. Novak, Proton conductors: classification and conductivity, in: P. Colomban (Ed.), Proton Conductors: Solids, Membranes and Gels – Materials and Devices, Solid State Mater. Chem., Cambridge University Press, 1992, 38-60. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511524806.004
[103] I. Vázquez-Fernández, M. Raghibi, A. Bouzina, L. Timperman, J. Bigarré, M. Anouti, Protic ionic liquids/poly(vinylidene fluoride) composite membranes for fuel cell application, J. Energy Chem. 53 (2021) 197-207. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jechem.2020.04.022
[104] J. Fuller, A.C. Breda, R.T. Carlin, Ionic liquid‐polymer gel electrolytes, J. Electrochem. Soc. 144 (1997) L67-L70. https://doi.org/10.1149/1.1837555
[105] M. Doyle, S.K. Choi, G. Proulx, High-temperature proton conducting membranes based on perfluorinated ionomer membrane-ionic liquid composites, J. Electrochem. Soc. 147 (2000) 34. https://doi.org/10.1149/1.1393153
[106] M. Anouti, J. Jones, A. Boisset, J. Jacquemin, M. Caillon-Caravanier, D. Lemordant, Aggregation behavior in water of new imidazolium and pyrrolidinium alkycarboxylates protic ionic liquids, J. Colloid Interface Sci. 340 (2009) 104-111. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcis.2009.07.061
[107] M. Díaz, A. Ortiz, I. Ortiz, Progress in the use of ionic liquids as electrolyte membranes in fuel cells, J. Memb. Sci. 469 (2014) 379-396. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.memsci.2014.06.033
[108] Z. Zeng, D. Yu, Z. He, J. Liu, F.-X. Xiao, Y. Zhang, R. Wang, D. Bhattacharyya, T.T.Y. Tan, Graphene oxide quantum dots covalently functionalized PVDF membrane with significantly-enhanced bactericidal and antibiofouling performances, Sci. Rep. 6 (2016) 20142. https://doi.org/10.1038/srep20142
[109] C.-H. Tsai, C.-C. Wang, C.-Y. Chang, C.-H. Lin, Y.W. Chen-Yang, Enhancing performance of Nafion ® -based PEMFC by 1-D channel metal-organic frameworks as PEM filler, Int. J. Hydrogen. Energy 39 (2014) 15696-15705. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2014.07.134
[110] P.M. Schoenecker, C.G. Carson, H. Jasuja, C.J.J. Flemming, K.S. Walton, Effect of water adsorption on retention of structure and surface area of metal-organic frameworks, Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 51 (2012) 6513-6519. https://doi.org/10.1021/ie202325p
[111] J. Ehrenmann, S.K. Henninger, C. Janiak, Water adsorption characteristics of mil‐101 for heat‐transformation applications of MOFs, Eur. J. Inorg. Chem. 2011 (2011) 471-474. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejic.201001156
[112] H. Zhang, Y. He, J. Zhang, L. Ma, Y. Li, J. Wang, Constructing dual-interfacial proton-conducting pathways in nanofibrous composite membrane for efficient proton transfer, J. Memb. Sci. 505 (2016) 108-118. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.memsci.2016.01.013
[113] V. Parthiban, S.K. Panda, A.K. Sahu, Highly fluorescent carbon quantum dots-Nafion as proton selective hybrid membrane for direct methanol fuel cells, Electrochim. Acta. 292 (2018) 855-864. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electacta.2018.09.193
[114] K. Hooshyari, M.B. Karimi, H. Su, S. Rahmani, H.R. Rajabi, Nanocomposite proton exchange membranes based on sulfonated polyethersulfone and functionalized quantum dots for fuel cell application, Int. J. Energy. Res. 46 (2022) 9178-9193. https://doi.org/10.1002/er.7794
[115] X. Dong, Y. Li, G. Wei, S. Zhao, S. Gao, J. Gao, Y. He, Perfluorosulfonic acid membranes with reduced hydrogen permeation by filling with carbon quantum dots for fuel cells, J. Mater. Sci. 59 (2024) 11893-11906. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10853-024-09849-1
[116] Y.-Q. Wang, Y.-N. Xue, S.-R. Li, X.-H. Zhang, H.-X. Fei, X.-G. Wu, S.-B. Sang, X.-N. Li, M. Wei, W.-Y. Chen, Nanocomposite carbon dots/PAM fluorescent hydrogels and their mechanical properties, J. Polym. Res. 24 (2017) 224. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10965-017-1389-y
[117] N.A. Mohamad Nor, H. Nakao, J. Jaafar, J.-D. Kim, Crosslinked carbon nanodots with highly sulfonated polyphenylsulfone as proton exchange membrane for fuel cell applications, Int. J. Hydrogen Energy 45 (2020) 9979-9988. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2020.01.142
