Sustainable and Green Approaches in Flame Retardant Development
Charles Michael Albert, Liew Kang Chiang
Sustainable and green flame retardants are increasingly developed as alternatives to halogen-based chemicals that have raised environmental and health concerns. Their lower toxicity and better compatibility with recycling processes have increased their use across various material classes. This chapter reviews the mechanisms of action, integration methods, and industrial applications of bio-based, mineral-based inorganic, and nano-enhanced flame retardants. Phytic acid, lignin, and tannin-based formulations improve charring behaviour but still face limitations in heat resistance and moisture stability. Aluminium hydroxide and zinc borate are among the most widely applied mineral-based systems and provide stable, halogen-free protection, although high loading levels can reduce strength and processability in polymers. Nano-enhanced additives such as clays, layered double hydroxides, and graphene materials improve flame resistance at lower concentrations, but uniform dispersion and production cost remain practical challenges. These materials are now applied in construction, textiles, electronics, and packaging sectors to comply with strict fire safety standards. Research continues to focus on improving their long-term durability, scalability, and reliability during standard fire testing.
Keywords
Green Flame Retardant, Sustainable Materials, Fire Protection, Halogen-Free, Fire Safety
Published online 5/1/2026, 15 pages
Citation: Charles Michael Albert, Liew Kang Chiang, Sustainable and Green Approaches in Flame Retardant Development, Materials Research Foundations, Vol. 190, pp 1-15, 2026
DOI: https://doi.org/10.21741/9781644904077-1
Part of the book on Flame Retardant Materials
References
[1] J.J. Andrew, M. Sain, S. Ramakrishna, M. Jawaid, H.N. Dhakal, Environmentally friendly fire retardant natural fibre composites: A review, Int. Mater. Rev. 69 (2024) 267-308. https://doi.org/10.1177/09506608241266302
[2] I. Soares, J.L. Ferreira, H. Silva, M.P. Rodrigues, Fire-retardant and fire-resistant coatings: From industry to the potential use on cultural heritage, J. Cult. Herit. 68 (2024) 316-327. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.culher.2024.06.014
[3] J.H. Troitzsch, Fire performance durability of flame retardants in polymers and coatings, Adv. Ind. Eng. Polym. Res. 7 (2024) 263-272. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aiepr.2023.05.002
[4] L.E. Hasburgh, G.T. Kirker, K.M. Ohno, Flame-retardant design and protection for wood and wood products, in: Fire Retardancy of Polymeric Materials, CRC Press., 2024, pp. 627-647. https://doi.org/10.1201/9781003380689-26
[5] M.L. Marques, E. Cairrao, Occurrence and health effects of hexabromocyclododecane: An updated review, Toxics 11 (2023) 409. https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics11050409
[6] D. Zacs, I. Perkons, E. Abdulajeva, E. Pasecnaja, E. Bartkiene, V. Bartkevics, Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), hexabromocyclododecanes (HBCDD), dechlorane-related compounds (DRCs), and emerging brominated flame retardants (EBFRs) in foods: The levels, profiles, and dietary intake in Latvia, Sci. Total Environ. 752 (2021) 141996. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.141996
[7] C. Olisah, L. Melymuk, O. Audy, P. Kukucka, P. Pribylova, M. Boudot, Extremely high levels of PBDEs in children’s toys from European markets: Causes and implications for the circular economy, Environ. Sci. Eur. 36 (2024) 183. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12302-024-00999-2
[8] J. Feng, L. Liu, Y. Zhang, Q. Wang, H. Liang, H. Wang, P. Song, Rethinking the pathway to sustainable fire retardants, Exploration 3 (2023) 20220088. https://doi.org/10.1002/EXP.20220088
[9] R.A. Mensah, V. Shanmugam, S. Narayanan, J.S. Renner, K. Babu, R.E. Neisiany, M. Försth, G. Sas, O. Das, A review of sustainable and environment-friendly flame retardants used in plastics, Polym. Test. 108 (2022) 107511. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.polymertesting.2022.107511
[10] G. Vahidi, D.S. Bajwa, J. Shojaeiarani, N. Stark, A. Darabi, Advancements in traditional and nanosized flame retardants for polymers-A review, J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 138 (2021) 50050. https://doi.org/10.1002/app.50050
[11] H. Feuchter, F. Poutch, A. Beard, The impact of halogen free phosphorus, inorganic and nitrogen flame retardants on the toxicity and density of smoke from 10 common polymers, Fire. Mater. 47 (2023) 1003-1023. https://doi.org/10.1002/fam.3145
[12] C.M. Albert, K.C. Liew, Recent development and challenges in enhancing fire performance on wood and wood-based composites: A 10-year review from 2012 to 2021, J. Bioresour. Bioprod. 9 (2024) 27-42. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobab.2023.10.004
[13] M. Wang, G.Z. Yin, Y. Yang, W. Fu, J.L. Díaz Palencia, J. Zhao, N. Wang, Y. Jiang, D.Y. Wang, Bio-based flame retardants to polymers: A review, Adv. Ind. Eng. Polym. Res. 6 (2023) 132-155. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aiepr.2022.07.003
[14] L. Costes, F. Laoutid, S. Brohez, P. Dubois, Bio-based flame retardants When nature meets fire protection, Mater. Sci. Eng. R Rep. 117 (2017) 1-25. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mser.2017.04.001
[15] Y. Liu, A. Zhang, Y. Cheng, M. Li, Y. Cui, Z. Li, Recent advances in biomass phytic acid flame retardants, Polym. Test. 124 (2023) 108100. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.polymertesting.2023.108100
[16] X. Chen, J. Li, H. Essawy, A. Pizzi, E. Fredon, C. Gerardin, G. Du, X. Zhou, Flame-retardant and thermally-insulating tannin and soybean protein isolate (SPI) based foams for potential applications in building materials, Constr. Build. Mater. 315 (2022) 125711. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2021.125711
[17] T.T. Yang, J.P. Guan, R.C. Tang, G. Chen, Condensed tannin from Dioscorea cirrhosa tuber as an eco-friendly and durable flame retardant for silk textile, Ind. Crops. Prod. 115 (2018) 16-25. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indcrop.2018.02.018
[18] N.N. Solihat, A.F. Hidayat, M.N.A.M. Taib, M.H. Hussin, S.H. Lee, M.A.A. Ghani, S.S.A.O. Al Edrus, H. Vahabi, W. Fatriasari, Recent developments in flame-retardant lignin-based biocomposite Manufacturing, and characterization, J. Polym. Environ. 30 (2022) 4517-4537. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10924-022-02494-2
[19] G. Malucelli, Flame-retardant systems based on chitosan and its derivatives: State of the art and perspectives, Molecules 25 (2020) 4046. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules25184046
[20] P. Li, C. Liu, Y.J. Xu, Z.M. Jiang, Y. Liu, P. Zhu, Novel and eco-friendly flame-retardant cotton fabrics with lignosulfonate and chitosan through LbL: Flame retardancy, smoke suppression and flame-retardant mechanism, Polym. Degrad. Stab. 181 (2020) 109302. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.polymdegradstab.2020.109302
[21] S.H. Jeong, C.H. Park, H. Song, J.H. Heo, J.H. Lee, Biomolecules as green flame retardants: Recent progress, challenges, and opportunities, J. Clean. Prod. 368 (2022) 133241. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2022.133241
[22] S. Faheem, V. Baheti, N. Nahid, M. Tunak, J. Wiener, J. Militky, Flame retardancy, physiological comfort and durability of casein treated cotton fabrics, Fibers Polym. 20 (2019) 1011-1020. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12221-019-8826-y
[23] B.O. Carvalho, L.P.C. Gonçalves, P. V. Mendonça, J.P. Pereira, A.C. Serra, J.F.J. Coelho, Replacing harmful flame retardants with biodegradable starch-based materials in polyethylene formulations, Polym. 15 (2023) 4078. https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15204078
[24] J. Koedel, S. Seibt, C. Callsen, F. Puchtler, M. Weise, A. Weidinger, V. Altstaedt, H. Ruckdäschel, R. Schobert, B. Biersack, DNA as a natural flame retardant for cellulose acetate polymer mixtures, ChemistrySelect 6 (2021) 3605-3609. https://doi.org/10.1002/slct.202004493
[25] T. Suryaprabha, M.G. Sethuraman, Fabrication of a superhydrophobic and flame-retardant cotton fabric using a DNA-based coating, J. Mater. Sci. 55 (2020) 11959-11969. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10853-020-04911-0
[26] H. Oosthuizen, L. Jones, S. Naseem, F.J.W.J. Labuschagne, A. Leuteritz, Tailoring materials for their need: Sustainable layered double hydroxide polymer composites, J. Polym. Sci. 61 (2023) 1749-1777. https://doi.org/10.1002/pol.20230025
[27] M.N.A.M. Taib, P. Antov, V. Savov, W. Fatriasari, E.W. Madyaratri, R. Wirawan, L.M. Osvaldová, L.S. Hua, M.A.A. Ghani, S.S.A.O. Al Edrus, L.W. Chen, D. Trache, M.H. Hussin, Current progress of biopolymer-based flame retardant, Polym. Degrad. Stab. 205 (2022) 110153. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.polymdegradstab.2022.110153
[28] M. Chen, Q. Guo, Y. Yuan, A. Li, B. Lin, Y. Xiao, L. Xu, W. Wang, Recent advancements of bio-derived flame retardants for polymeric materials, Polym. 17 (2025) 249. https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17020249
[29] C.E. Hobbs, Recent advances in bio-based flame retardant additives for synthetic polymeric materials, Polym. 11 (2019) 224. https://doi.org/10.3390/polym11020224
[30] M.A. Iqbal, M.A. Iqbal, M. Fedel, Fire retardancy of aluminum hydroxide reinforced flame retardant modified epoxy resin composite, Russ. J. Appl. Chem. 91 (2018) 680-686. https://doi.org/10.1134/S1070427218040225
[31] M.J. Mochane, T.H. Mokhothu, T.C. Mokhena, Synthesis, mechanical, and flammability properties of metal hydroxide reinforced polymer composites A review, Polym. Eng. Sci. 62 (2022) 44-65. https://doi.org/10.1002/pen.25847
[32] J. Xiao, J. Hobson, A. Ghosh, M. Haranczyk, D.Y. Wang, Flame retardant properties of metal hydroxide-based polymer composites: A machine learning approach, Compos. Commun. 40 (2023) 101593. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coco.2023.101593
[33] G. Scionti, E. Piperopoulos, M. Atria, L. Calabrese, E. Proverbio, Effect of magnesium hydroxide and aluminum hydroxide as thermal barriers on the flame-retardant behavior of acrylic-based coating, Coatings 13 (2023) 1517. https://doi.org/10.3390/coatings13091517
[34] J. Vaari, A. Paajanen, Evaluation of the reactive molecular dynamics method for Research on flame retardants ATH-filled polyethylene, Comput. Mater. Sci. 153 (2018) 103-112. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.commatsci.2018.06.032
[35] K. Zhou, Y. Hu, K. Zhao, Y. Hou, W. Hu, L. Song, F. Chu, Y. Hu, Transformation of magnesium hydroxide whiskers into high-performance multifunctional flame retardant synergists by interfacial engineering modulation, Constr. Build. Mater. 473 (2025) 141009. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2025.141009
[36] Q.F. Gillani, F. Ahmad, M.I. Abdul Mutalib, P.S.M. Megat-Yusoff, S. Ullah, P.J. Messet, M. Zia-ul-Mustafa, Thermal degradation and pyrolysis analysis of zinc borate reinforced intumescent fire retardant coatings, Prog. Org. Coat. 123 (2018) 82-98. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.porgcoat.2018.05.007
[37] R. Gupta, M.K. Singh, S.M. Rangappa, S. Siengchin, H.N. Dhakal, S. Zafar, Recent progress in additive inorganic flame retardants polymer composites Degradation mechanisms, modeling and applications, Heliyon 10 (2024) e39662. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e39662
[38] B. Mazela, A. Batista, W. Grześkowiak, Expandable graphite as a fire retardant for cellulosic materials-A review, Forests 11 (2020) 755. https://doi.org/10.3390/f11070755
[39] L.T. Temane, S.S. Ray, J.T. Orasugh, Review on processing, flame‐retardant properties, and applications of polyethylene composites with graphene‐based nanomaterials, Macromol. Mater. Eng. 309 (2024) 2400104. https://doi.org/10.1002/mame.202400104
[40] K. Li, A. Fina, D. Marrè, F. Carosio, O. Monticelli, Graphite oxide nanocoatings as a sustainable route to extend the applicability of biopolymer-based film, Appl. Surf. Sci. 522 (2020) 146471. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apsusc.2020.146471
[41] J. Rodrigues, N.G. Shimpi, Nanostructured flame retardants: An overview, Nano-Struct. Nano-Objects 39 (2024) 101253. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nanoso.2024.101253
[42] M. Rajaei, N.K. Kim, S. Bickerton, D. Bhattacharyya, A comparative study on effects of natural and synthesised nano-clays on the fire and mechanical properties of epoxy composites, Compos. B. Eng. 165 (2019) 65-74. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesb.2018.11.089
[43] A. Rabajczyk, M. Zielecka, T. Popielarczyk, T. Sowa, Nanotechnology in fire protection-application and requirements, Materials 14 (2021) 7849. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14247849
[44] Y. Wang, B. Liu, R. Chen, Y. Wang, Z. Han, C. Wang, L. Weng, Synergistic effect of nano-silica and intumescent flame retardant on the fire reaction properties of polypropylene composites, Materials 16 (2023) 4759. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16134759
[45] X. Ji, D. Chen, Q. Wang, J. Shen, S. Guo, Synergistic effect of flame retardants and carbon nanotubes on flame retarding and electromagnetic shielding properties of thermoplastic polyurethane, Compos. Sci. Technol. 163 (2018) 49-55. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compscitech.2018.05.007
[46] G.Q. Chai, G.Q. Zhu, Y. Gao, J. Zhou, S. Gao, Flame retardancy of carbon nanotubes reinforced carbon fiber/epoxy resin composites, Appl. Sci. (Switz.) 9 (2019) 3275. https://doi.org/10.3390/app9163275
[47] M. Zhang, X. Ding, Y. Zhan, Y. Wang, X. Wang, Improving the flame retardancy of poly(lactic acid) using an efficient ternary hybrid flame retardant by dual modification of graphene oxide with phenylphosphinic acid and nano MOFs, J. Hazard. Mater. 384 (2020) 121260. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2019.121260
[48] W. Yin, L. Chen, F. Lu, P. Song, J. Dai, L. Meng, Mechanically robust, flame-retardant poly (lactic acid) biocomposites via combining cellulose nanofibers and ammonium polyphosphate, ACS Omega 3 (2018) 5615-5626. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsomega.8b00540
[49] D. Wang, H. Peng, B. Yu, K. Zhou, H. Pan, L. Zhang, M. Li, M. Liu, A. Tian, S. Fu, Biomimetic structural cellulose nanofiber aerogels with exceptional mechanical, flame-retardant and thermal-insulating properties, Chem. Eng. J. 389 (2020) 124449. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2020.124449
[50] J. Kameliya, A. Verma, P. Dutta, C. Arora, S. Vyas, R.S. Varma, Layered double hydroxide materials: A review on their preparation, characterization, and applications, Inorganics 11 (2023) 121. https://doi.org/10.3390/inorganics11030121
