Microwave-Assisted Synthesis of Polypyrrole and Potential Applications

$40.00

Microwave-Assisted Synthesis of Polypyrrole and Potential Applications

D. Mahanta, K.K. Mudoi, S. Saikia

Polypyrrole is a widely studied conducting polymer known for its easy synthetic routes, high environmental stability, high conductivity, a wide range of applications, etc. Owing to such versatility, Polypyrrole has attracted the attention of various researchers for a long time. The synthesis procedures of Polypyrrole have also improved over time. With the recent advancements in microwave-assisted synthesis, researchers are now exploring its application in the field of Polypyrrole synthesis. This book chapter focuses on the basics of microwave-assisted synthesis, the application of microwave in the synthesis of Polypyrrole, its advantages and limitations over other conventional methods, and potential opportunities in various fields.

Keywords
Conducting Polymer, Microwave Irradiation, Polymerization Reaction, Energy Storage Application, Energy, Sensor Application, Biomedicine

Published online 4/5/2026, 31 pages

Citation: D. Mahanta, K.K. Mudoi, S. Saikia, Microwave-Assisted Synthesis of Polypyrrole and Potential Applications, Materials Research Foundations, Vol. 189, pp 103-133, 2026

DOI: https://doi.org/10.21741/9781644904039-4

Part of the book on Microwave-Assisted Synthesis

References
[1] D. Feldman, Polymer history, Des. Monomers Polym. 11 (2008) 1-15. https://doi.org/10.1163/156855508X292383
[2] T. V. Vernitskaya, O.N. Efimov, Polypyrrole: A conducting polymer (synthesis, properties, and applications), Russ. Chem. Rev. 66 (1997) 443-457. https://doi.org/10.1070/RC1997v066n05ABEH000261
[3] Y. Sood, K. Singh, H. Mudila, P.E. Lokhande, L. Singh, D. Kumar, A. Kumar, N.M. Mubarak, M.H. Dehghani, Insights into properties, synthesis and emerging applications of polypyrrole-based composites, and future prospective: A review, Heliyon 10 (2024) e33643. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e33643
[4] E. Tavakkol, H. Tavanai, A. Abdolmaleki, M. Morshed, Production of conductive electrospun polypyrrole/poly(vinyl pyrrolidone) nanofibers, Synth. Met. 231 (2017) 95-106. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.synthmet.2017.06.017
[5] Z. Chen, X. Zhao, R. Lu, R. Hong, X. Yang, Electrodeposition of polypyrrole as binder-free and high mass-loading electrodes for flexible supercapacitors, Synth. Met. 296 (2023) 117378. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.synthmet.2023.117378
[6] H. Albaris, G. Karuppasamy, Inspection of room temperature hydrogen sensing property of nanostructured polypyrrole/polyaniline hetero-junctions synthesized by one-pot interfacial polymerization, Mater. Chem. Phys. 250 (2020) 123153. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matchemphys.2020.123153
[7] A. Jabbar Khan, L. Gao, A. Numan, S. Khan, I. Hussain, M. Sajjad, S.S. Shah, A. Mateen, G. Zhao, Recent advancements in the tailoring of nanomaterials via microwave-assisted synthesis: A comprehensive review, Crit. Rev. Solid State Mater. Sci. 50 (2025) 1-24. https://doi.org/10.1080/10408436.2024.2446049
[8] J. Stejskal, M. Trchová, Conducting polypyrrole nanotubes: A review, Chem. Pap. 72 (2018) 1563-1595. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11696-018-0394-x
[9] A. Ramanavičius, A. Ramanavičiene, A. Malinauskas, Electrochemical sensors based on conducting polymer-polypyrrole, Electrochim. Acta 51 (2006) 6025-6037. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electacta.2005.11.052
[10] L. Yuan, B. Yao, B. Hu, K. Huo, W. Chen, J. Zhou, Polypyrrole-coated paper for flexible solid-state energy storage, Energy Environ. Sci. 6 (2013) 470-476. https://doi.org/10.1039/c2ee23977a
[11] K. Kontturi, P. Pentti, G. Sundholm, Polypyrrole as a model membrane for drug delivery, J. Electroanal. Chem. 453 (1998) 231-238. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0022-0728(98)00246-0
[12] A. Nautiyal, M. Qiao, J.E. Cook, X. Zhang, T.S. Huang, High performance polypyrrole coating for corrosion protection and biocidal applications, Appl. Surf. Sci. 427 (2018) 922-930. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apsusc.2017.08.093
[13] R.J. Giguere, T.L. Bray, S.M. Duncan, G. Majctich, Application of commercial microwave ovens to organic synthesis., Tetrahedron Lett. 27 (1986) 4945-4948. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0040-4039(00)85103-5
[14] M.M. Shams, B. Zamiri, H. Fatoorehchi, Microwave-assisted synthesis of fuel cell catalyst, in: Proc. 14th Int. Electron. Conf. Synth. Org. Chem., MDPI, 2010. https://doi.org/10.3390/ecsoc-14-00406
[15] M. Nüchter, B. Ondruschka, W. Bonrath, A. Gum, Microwave-assisted synthesis – A critical technology overview, Green Chem. 6 (2004) 128-141. https://doi.org/10.1039/B310502D
[16] A. Mahun, S. Abbrent, P. Bober, J. Brus, L. Kobera, Effect of structural features of polypyrrole (PPy) on electrical conductivity reflected on 13C ssNMR parameters, Synth. Met. 259 (2020) 116250. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.synthmet.2019.116250
[17] M. In, A. Ringopening, “Synthetic metals” : A novel role for organic polymers, Makromol. Chem., Macromol. Symp. 51 (1991) 11-28. https://doi.org/10.1002/masy.19910510104
[18] T.H. Le, Y. Kim, H. Yoon, Electrical and electrochemical properties of conducting polymers, Polymers (Basel). 9 (2017) 150. https://doi.org/10.3390/polym9040150
[19] M.E.A. Mohsin, M. Elias, A. Arsad, K.C. Yong, O. Alothman, Z.Y. Zakaria, Electrical conductivity, thermal, rheological and morphological characteristics of grafted blend of polypyrrole and polypropylene, Chem. Eng. Trans. 56 (2017) 1375-1380.
[20] M. Mahmoodian, B. Pourabbas, S. Mohajerzadeh, Effect of anionic dopants on thickness, morphology and electrical properties of polypyrrole ultra-thin films prepared by in situ chemical polymerization, Thin Solid Films 583 (2015) 255-263. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tsf.2015.03.043
[21] A.A. Jatratkar, J.B. Yadav, S. V. Kamat, V.S. Patil, D.B. Mahadik, H.C. Barshilia, V. Puri, R.K. Puri, Consequence of oxidant to monomer ratio on optical and structural properties of polypyrrole thin film deposited by oxidation polymerization technique, J. Phys. Chem. Solids 80 (2015) 78-83. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpcs.2015.01.004
[22] Y. Tan, K. Ghandi, Kinetics and mechanism of pyrrole chemical polymerization, Synth. Met. 175 (2013) 183-191. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.synthmet.2013.05.014
[23] M. Li, W. Li, J. Liu, J. Yao, Preparation and characterization of PPy doped with different anionic surfactants, Polym. Eng. Sci. 53 (2013) 2465-2469. https://doi.org/10.1002/pen.23538
[24] I.M. Minisy, P. Bober, I. Šeděnková, J. Stejskal, Methyl red dye in the tuning of polypyrrole conductivity, Polymer (Guildf). 207 (2020) 122854. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.polymer.2020.122854
[25] S.T. Navale, A.T. Mane, A.A. Ghanwat, A.R. Mulik, V.B. Patil, Camphor sulfonic acid ( CSA ) doped polypyrrole ( PPy ) films : Measurement of microstructural and optoelectronic properties, Measurement 50 (2014) 363-369. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.measurement.2014.01.012
[26] Y. Song, J.B. Fan, S. Wang, Recent progress in interfacial polymerization, Mater. Chem. Front. 1 (2017) 1028-1040. https://doi.org/10.1039/C6QM00325G
[27] Y. Liu, F. Wu, Synthesis and application of polypyrrole nanofibers: A review, Nanoscale Adv. 5 (2023) 3606-3618. https://doi.org/10.1039/D3NA00138E
[28] Q. Pei, R. Qian, Protonation and deprotonation of polypyrrole chain in aqueous solutions, Synth. Met. 45 (1991) 35-48. https://doi.org/10.1016/0379-6779(91)91845-2
[29] D.K. Beaman, E.J. Robertson, G.L. Richmond, Ordered polyelectrolyte assembly at the oil-water interface, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 109 (2012) 3226-3231. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1200244109
[30] L. Hao, C. Dong, L. Zhang, K. Zhu, D. Yu, Polypyrrole nanomaterials: Structure, preparation and application, Polymers (Basel). 14 (2022) 5139. https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14235139
[31] J. Hazarika, A. Kumar, Scalable and low cost synthesis of highly conducting polypyrrole nanofibers using oil-water interfacial polymerization under constant stirring, J. Phys. Chem. B 121 (2017) 6926-6933. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.jpcb.7b03179
[32] S.J. Hawkins, N.M. Ratcliffe, A study of the effects of acid on the polymerization of pyrrole, on the oxidative polymerization of pyrrole and on polypyrrole, J. Mater. Chem. 10 (2000) 2057-2062. https://doi.org/10.1039/b001912g
[33] A.L. Pang, A. Arsad, M. Ahmadipour, Synthesis and factor affecting on the conductivity of polypyrrole: A short review, Polym. Adv. Technol. 32 (2021) 1428-1454. https://doi.org/10.1002/pat.5201
[34] M.M. Gvozdenović, B.Z. Jugović, J.S. Stevanović, B.N. Grgur, Elektrohemijska sinteza elektroprovodnih polimera, Hem. Ind. 68 (2014) 673-684. https://doi.org/10.2298/HEMIND131122008G
[35] M. Wysocka-Żołopa, K. Winkler, Electrochemical synthesis and properties of conical polypyrrole structures, Electrochim. Acta 258 (2017) 1421-1434. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electacta.2017.12.005
[36] J.A. Raj, R. Sasikumar, M. Sethupathy, C. Vedhi, P. Manisankar, Electrochemical synthesis of nanosize polypyrrole in presence of aqueous surfactant solutions, Adv. Mater. Res. 678 (2013) 244-247. https://doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/AMR.678.244
[37] R.B. Choudhary, S. Ansari, B. Purty, Robust electrochemical performance of polypyrrole (PPy) and polyindole (PIn) based hybrid electrode materials for supercapacitor application: A review, J. Energy Storage 29 (2020) 101302. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.est.2020.101302
[38] Y. Huang, H. Li, Z. Wang, M. Zhu, Z. Pei, Q. Xue, Y. Huang, C. Zhi, Nanostructured polypyrrole as a flexible electrode material of supercapacitor, Nano Energy 22 (2016) 422-438. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nanoen.2016.02.047
[39] A. Frenot, I.S. Chronakis, Polymer nanofibers assembled by electrospinning, Curr. Opin. Colloid Interface Sci. 8 (2003) 64-75. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1359-0294(03)00004-9
[40] T. Blachowicz, A. Ehrmann, Conductive electrospun nanofiber mats, Materials (Basel). 13 (2019) 152. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma13010152
[41] Y. Cong, S. Liu, H. Chen, Fabrication of conductive polypyrrole nanofibers by electrospinning, J. Nanomater. 2013 (2013) 148347. https://doi.org/10.1155/2013/148347
[42] I. Masmur, S. Perangin-angin, H. Sembiring, A.H. Tarigan, J. Ginting, D.A. Barus, M. Ginting, Effect of different compositions of polyethylene oxide-polypyrrole (PEO-PPy) nanofiber mats on antibacterial and biocompatibility properties, ChemistrySelect 7 (2022) e202201346. https://doi.org/10.1002/slct.202201346
[43] I.S. Chronakis, S. Grapenson, A. Jakob, Conductive polypyrrole nanofibers via electrospinning: Electrical and morphological properties, Polymer (Guildf). 47 (2006) 1597-1603. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.polymer.2006.01.032
[44] A. Kumar, Y. Kuang, Z. Liang, X. Sun, Microwave chemistry, recent advancements, and eco-friendly microwave-assisted synthesis of nanoarchitectures and their applications: A review, Mater. Today Nano 11 (2020) 100076. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mtnano.2020.100076
[45] F. Wiesbrock, R. Hoogenboom, U.S. Schubert, Microwave-assisted polymer synthesis: State-of-the-art and future perspectives, Macromol. Rapid Commun. 25 (2004) 1739-1764. https://doi.org/10.1002/marc.200400313
[46] J. Arun, S. Nachiappan, G. Rangarajan, R.P. Alagappan, K.P. Gopinath, E. Lichtfouse, Synthesis and application of titanium dioxide photocatalysis for energy, decontamination and viral disinfection: A review, Environ. Chem. Lett. 21 (2023) 339-362. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10311-022-01503-z
[47] J. Sun, W. Wang, Q. Yue, Review on microwave-matter interaction fundamentals and efficient microwave-associated heating strategies, Materials. 9 (2016) 231. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma9040231
[48] C. Gabriel, S. Gabriel, E.H. Grant, B.S.J. Halstead, D. M. P. Mingos, Dielectric parameters relevant to microwave dielectric heating, Chem. Soc. Rev. 27 (1998) 213-223. https://doi.org/10.1039/a827213z
[49] O. Gerard, A. Numan, S. Krishnan, M. Khalid, R. Subramaniam, R. Kasi, A review on the recent advances in binder-free electrodes for electrochemical energy storage application, J. Energy Storage 50 (2022) 104283. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.est.2022.104283
[50] R. Hoogenboom, U.S. Schubert, Microwave-assisted polymer synthesis: Recent developments in a rapidly expanding field of research, Macromol. Rapid Commun. 28 (2007) 368-386. https://doi.org/10.1002/marc.200600749
[51] L. Zong, S. Zhou, N. Sgriccia, M.C. Hawley, L.C. Kempel, A review of microwave-assisted polymer chemistry (MAPC), J. Microw. Power Electromagn. Energy 38 (2003) 49-74. https://doi.org/10.1080/08327823.2003.11688487
[52] B.L. Hayes, Recent advances in microwave-assisted synthesis, Aldrichimica Acta 37 (2004) 66-76.
[53] P.G. Jessop, S. Trakhtenberg, J. Warner, The twelve principles of green chemistry, in: W. H. Flank, M.A. Abraham, M.A. Matthews (Eds.), Innovations in Industrial and Engineering Chemistry: A Century of Achievements and Prospects for the New Millennium, American Chemical Society, Washington, DC, 2009, pp. 401-436. https://doi.org/10.1021/bk-2009-1000.ch012
[54] M.R. Rosana, Y. Tao, A.E. Stiegman, G.B. Dudley, On the rational design of microwave-actuated organic reactions, Chem. Sci. 3 (2012) 1240-1244. https://doi.org/10.1039/c2sc01003h
[55] V.L. Budarin, P.S. Shuttleworth, M. De Bruyn, T.J. Farmer, M.J. Gronnow, L. Pfaltzgraff, D.J. Macquarrie, J.H. Clark, The potential of microwave technology for the recovery, synthesis and manufacturing of chemicals from bio-wastes, Catal. Today 239 (2015) 80-89. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cattod.2013.11.058
[56] A.K. Rathi, M.B. Gawande, R. Zboril, R.S. Varma, Microwave-assisted synthesis – Catalytic applications in aqueous media, Coord. Chem. Rev. 291 (2015) 68-94. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ccr.2015.01.011
[57] K.E. Haque, Microwave energy for mineral treatment processes – A brief review, Int. J. Miner. Process. 57 (1999) 1-24. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0301-7516(99)00009-5
[58] J.M. Kremsner, A. Stadler, C.O. Kappe, The scale-up of microwave-assisted organic synthesis, in: M. Larhed, K. Olofsson (Eds.), Microwave Methods in Organic Synthesis (Topics in Current Chemistry), Springer, Berlin Heidelberg, 2006, pp. 233-278. https://doi.org/10.1007/128_048
[59] J. Robinson, S. Kingman, D. Irvine, P. Licence, A. Smith, G. Dimitrakis, D. Obermayer, C.O. Kappe, Understanding microwave heating effects in single mode type cavities – Theory and experiment, Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys. 12 (2010) 4750-4758. https://doi.org/10.1039/b922797k
[60] V. Polshettiwar, R.S. Varma, Microwave-assisted organic synthesis and transformations using benign reaction media, Acc. Chem. Res. 41 (2008) 629-639. https://doi.org/10.1021/ar700238s
[61] A.A. Caouthar, A. Loupy, M. Bortolussi, J.C. Blais, L. Dubreucq, A. Meddour, Synthesis and characterization of new polyamides based on diphenylaminoisosorbide, J. Polym. Sci. Part A Polym. Chem. 43 (2005) 6480-6491. https://doi.org/10.1002/pola.21116
[62] K. Faghihi, M. Hagibeygi, New polyamides containing azobenzene unites and hydantoin derivatives in main chain: Synthesis and characterization, Eur. Polym. J. 39 (2003) 2307-2314. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0014-3057(03)00178-2
[63] Z.J. Yu, L.J. Liu, Effect of microwave energy on chain propagation of poly(ε- caprolactone) in benzoic acid-initiated ring opening polymerization of ε-caprolactone, Eur. Polym. J. 40 (2004) 2213-2220. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eurpolymj.2004.05.007
[64] L. Liu, Y. Li, Y.E. Fang, L. Chen, Microwave-assisted graft copolymerization of ε-caprolactone onto chitosan via the phthaloyl protection method, Carbohydr. Polym. 60 (2005) 351-356. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbpol.2005.01.009
[65] S. Sinnwell, H. Ritter, Microwave accelerated polymerization of 2-phenyl-2-oxazoline, Macromol. Rapid Commun. 26 (2005) 160-163. https://doi.org/10.1002/marc.200400477
[66] F. Wiesbrock, R. Hoogenboom, M.A.M. Leenen, M.A.R. Meier, U.S. Schubert, Investigation of the living cationic ring-opening polymerization of 2-methyl-, 2-ethyl-, 2-nonyl-, and 2-phenyl-2-oxazoline in a single-mode microwave reactor, Macromolecules 38 (2005) 5025-5034. https://doi.org/10.1021/ma0474170
[67] V. Singh, A. Tiwari, D.N. Tripathi, R. Sanghi, Microwave assisted synthesis of guar-g-polyacrylamide, Carbohydr. Polym. 58 (2004) 1-6. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbpol.2004.04.010
[68] C.M. Fellows, Preliminary observations on the copolymerization of acceptor monomer: Donor monomer systems under microwave irradiation, Cent. Eur. J. Chem. 3 (2005) 40-52. https://doi.org/10.2478/BF02476236
[69] J. Bao, A. Zhang, Poly(methyl methacrylate) nanoparticles prepared through microwave emulsion polymerization, J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 93 (2004) 2815-2820. https://doi.org/10.1002/app.20758
[70] M.A. Aldana-García, J. Palacios, E. Vivaldo-Lima, Modeling of the microwave initiated emulsion polymerization of styrene, J. Macromol. Sci. – Pure Appl. Chem. 42 (2005) 1207-1225. https://doi.org/10.1080/10601320500189505
[71] S.L. Brown, C.M. Rayner, S. Perrier, Microwave-accelerated RAFT polymerization of polar monomers, Macromol. Rapid Commun. 28 (2007) 478-483. https://doi.org/10.1002/marc.200600755
[72] M. Leenen, F. Wiesbrock, R. Hoogenboom, U.S. Schubert, Microwave-assisted nitroxide-mediated polymerization of alkyl acrylates, E-Polymers 2005 (2005) 1-9. https://doi.org/10.1515/epoly.2005.5.1.741
[73] C. Zhang, H. Pan, X. Wang, S.K. Sun, Microwave-assisted ultrafast fabrication of high-performance polypyrrole nanoparticles for photothermal therapy of tumors: In vivo, Biomater. Sci. 6 (2018) 2750-2756. https://doi.org/10.1039/C8BM00653A
[74] A.A. Yadav, S.B. Kulkarni, C.D. Lokhande, Synthesis and characterization of polypyrrole thin film by MW-CBD method for NH3 gas sensor, Polym. Bull. 75 (2018) 4547-4553. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00289-018-2282-5
[75] D.B. Dupare, M.D. Shirsat, A.S. Aswar, Metal oxides doped PPY-PVA blend thin films based gas sensor, Sensors Transducers J. 101 (2009) 82-89.
[76] Z. Jiao, Y. Zhang, H. Fan, Ultrasonic-microwave method in preparation of polypyrrole-coated magnetic particles for vitamin D extraction in milk, J. Chromatogr. A 1457 (2016) 7-13. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chroma.2016.06.041
[77] Y. Qi, Y. Cao, X. Meng, K. Yu, W. Si, W. Lei, Q. Hao, J. Li, F. Wang, Microwave-assisted synthesis of a polypyrrole/graphene composite using a pyrrole-induced graphene oxide hydrogel for the selective determination of dihydroxybenzenes, ChemistrySelect 3 (2018) 7713-7717. https://doi.org/10.1002/slct.201801306
[78] H. Mi, X. Zhang, Y. Xu, F. Xiao, Synthesis, characterization and electrochemical behavior of polypyrrole/carbon nanotube composites using organometallic-functionalized carbon nanotubes, Appl. Surf. Sci. 256 (2010) 2284-2288. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apsusc.2009.10.053
[79] K.H. Kate, K. Singh, P.K. Khanna, Microwave formation of polypyrrole/Ag nano-composite based on interfacial polymerization by use of AgNO3, Synth. React. Inorganic, Met. Nano-Metal Chem. 41 (2011) 199-202. https://doi.org/10.1080/15533174.2010.538033
[80] M. Maruthapandi, K. Sharma, J.H.T. Luong, A. Gedanken, Antibacterial activities of microwave-assisted synthesized polypyrrole/chitosan and poly (pyrrole-N-(1-naphthyl) ethylenediamine) stimulated by C-dots, Carbohydr. Polym. 243 (2020) 116474. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbpol.2020.116474
[81] A. Belmokhtar, N. Sahli, A. Yahiaoui, M. Belbachir, Polycondensation of pyrrole and benzaldehyde catalyzed by Maghnite-H+, Express Polym. Lett. 1 (2007) 443-449. https://doi.org/10.3144/expresspolymlett.2007.62
[82] H. Liu, Q. Zhao, K. Wang, Z. Lu, F. Feng, Y. Guo, Facile synthesis of polypyrrole nanofiber (PPyNF)/NiO: X composites by a microwave method and application in supercapacitors, RSC Adv. 9 (2019) 6890-6897. https://doi.org/10.1039/C8RA09666J
[83] L. Xing, Q. Rong, Z. Ma, Non-enzymatic electrochemical sensing of hydrogen peroxide based on polypyrrole/platinum nanocomposites, Sensors Actuators, B Chem. 221 (2015) 242-247. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.snb.2015.06.078
[84] M. Josowicz, J. Janata, Electroactive polymers in chemical sensors, in: B. Scrosati (Ed.), Applications of Electroactive Polymers, Springer, Dordrecht, 1993, pp. 310-343. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-011-1568-1_10
[85] G.A. Snook, P. Kao, A.S. Best, Conducting-polymer-based supercapacitor devices and electrodes, J. Power Sources 196 (2011) 1-12. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2010.06.084
[86] M. Yeganeh, M. Saremi, H. Rezaeyan, Corrosion inhibition of steel using mesoporous silica nanocontainers incorporated in the polypyrrole, Prog. Org. Coatings 77 (2014) 1428-1435. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.porgcoat.2014.05.007
[87] T.W. Lee, Investigation on the low luminous efficiency in a polymer light-emitting diode with a high work-function cathode by soft contact lamination, Adv. Funct. Mater. 17 (2007) 3128-3133. https://doi.org/10.1002/adfm.200700490
[88] C. Wang, W. Zheng, Z. Yue, C.O. Too, G.G. Wallace, Buckled, Stretchable polypyrrole electrodes for battery applications, Adv. Mater. 23 (2011) 3580-3584. https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.201101067
[89] R. Darabi, H. Karimi-Maleh, M. Akin, K. Arikan, Z. Zhang, R. Bayat, M. Bekmezci, F. Sen, Simultaneous determination of ascorbic acid, dopamine, and uric acid with a highly selective and sensitive reduced graphene oxide/polypyrrole-platinum nanocomposite modified electrochemical sensor, Electrochim. Acta 457 (2023) 142402. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electacta.2023.142402
[90] W. Sun, X. Chen, Preparation and characterization of polypyrrole films for three-dimensional micro supercapacitor, J. Power Sources 193 (2009) 924-929. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2009.04.063
[91] C. Shen, Y. Sun, W. Yao, Y. Lu, Facile synthesis of polypyrrole nanospheres and their carbonized products for potential application in high-performance supercapacitors, Polymer (Guildf). 55 (2014) 2817-2824. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.polymer.2014.04.042
[92] R. Oraon, A. De Adhikari, S.K. Tiwari, G.C. Nayak, Nanoclay-based hierarchical interconnected mesoporous CNT/PPy electrode with improved specific capacitance for high performance supercapacitors, Dalt. Trans. 45 (2016) 9113-9126. https://doi.org/10.1039/C6DT00600K
[93] H. Liu, Z. Lu, J. Qin, K. Wang, F. Feng, Y. Guo, Microwave rapid synthesis of CuxO@polypyrrole nanofibre (PpyNF) composites for supercapacitors, Fullerenes Nanotub. Carbon Nanostructures 27 (2019) 947-952. https://doi.org/10.1080/1536383X.2019.1666366
[94] J. Wang, Y. Xu, X. Chen, X. Sun, Capacitance properties of single wall carbon nanotube/polypyrrole composite films, Compos. Sci. Technol. 67 (2007) 2981-2985. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compscitech.2007.05.015
[95] K.H. An, K.K. Jeon, J.K. Heo, S.C. Lim, D.J. Bae, Y.H. Lee, High-capacitance supercapacitor using a nanocomposite electrode of single-walled carbon nanotube and polypyrrole, J. Electrochem. Soc. 149 (2002) A1058-A1062. https://doi.org/10.1149/1.1491235
[96] A. Davies, P. Audette, B. Farrow, F. Hassan, Z. Chen, J.Y. Choi, A. Yu, Graphene-based flexible supercapacitors: Pulse-electropolymerization of polypyrrole on free-standing graphene films, J. Phys. Chem. C 115 (2011) 17612-17620. https://doi.org/10.1021/jp205568v
[97] B. Zhang, P. Zhou, Y. Xu, J. Lin, H. Li, Y. Bai, J. Zhu, S. Mao, J. Wang, Gravity-assisted synthesis of micro/nano-structured polypyrrole for supercapacitors, Chem. Eng. J. 330 (2017) 1060-1067. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2017.07.183
[98] J. Li, H. Xie, Y. Li, Fabrication of graphene oxide/polypyrrole nanowire composite for high performance supercapacitor electrodes, J. Power Sources 241 (2013) 388-395. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2013.04.144
[99] L. Cui, J. Shen, F. Cheng, Z. Tao, J. Chen, SnO2 nanoparticles@polypyrrole nanowires composite as anode materials for rechargeable lithium-ion batteries, J. Power Sources 196 (2011) 2195-2201. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2010.09.075
[100] Y. Zhao, J. Li, N. Wang, C. Wu, G. Dong, L. Guan, Fully reversible conversion between SnO2 and Sn in SWNTs@SnO2@PPy coaxial nanocable as high performance anode material for lithium ion batteries, J. Phys. Chem. C 116 (2012) 18612-18617. https://doi.org/10.1021/jp304095y
[101] X. Du, T. Yang, J. Lin, T. Feng, J. Zhu, L. Lu, Y. Xu, J. Wang, Microwave-assisted synthesis of SnO2@polypyrrole nanotubes and their pyrolyzed composite as anode for lithium-ion batteries, ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 8 (2016) 15598-15606. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.6b03332
[102] J. Pokki, O. Ergeneman, K.M. Sivaraman, B. Özkale, M.A. Zeeshan, T. Lühmann, B.J. Nelson, S. Pané, Electroplated porous polypyrrole nanostructures patterned by colloidal lithography for drug-delivery applications, Nanoscale 4 (2012) 3083-3088. https://doi.org/10.1039/c2nr30192j
[103] S.H. Wu, H.T. Lu, H.T. Nguyen, P.Y. Lin, W.Y. Pan, A.E.Y. Chuang, Microwave-orchestrated phototherapeutic polypyrrole/soy extraction micro-complex for burn wound healing in a rodent model, J. Drug Deliv. Sci. Technol. 108 (2025) 106911. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jddst.2025.106911
[104] F.A.G. da Silva Júnior, S.A. Vieira, S. de Avila Botton, M.M. da Costa, H.P. de Oliveira, Antibacterial activity of polypyrrole-based nanocomposites: A mini-review, Polimeros 30 (2020) 1-9. https://doi.org/10.1590/0104-1428.08020
[105] K. Kempe, C.R. Becer, U.S. Schubert, Microwave-assisted polymerizations: Recent status and future perspectives, Macromolecules 44 (2011) 5825-5842. https://doi.org/10.1021/ma2004794
[106] S.S. Jeon, C. Kim, J. Ko, S.S. Im, Pt nanoparticles supported on polypyrrole nanospheres as a catalytic counter electrode for dye-sensitized solar cells, J. Phys. Chem. C 115 (2011) 22035-22039. https://doi.org/10.1021/jp206535c
[107] M.E.I. Badawy, M.A.M. El-Nouby, P.K. Kimani, L.W. Lim, E.I. Rabea, A review of the modern principles and applications of solid-phase extraction techniques in chromatographic analysis, Anal. Sci. 38 (2022) 1457-1487. https://doi.org/10.1007/s44211-022-00190-8