Microwave-Assisted Bioactive Heterocycles: Applications in Medicinal Chemistry
Shraddha Gautam, Kalpana Swain, Satyanarayan Pattnaik
This chapter explores the use of microwave-assisted organic synthesis (MAOS) for the rapid and eco-friendly synthesis of bioactive heterocycles, including pyrimidines, quinazolines, indoles, thiazoles, oxazoles, and imidazoles. MAOS enhances reaction rates, yields, and selectivity while reducing energy consumption and solvent use, aligning with green chemistry principles. Each class of heterocycle discussed plays a significant role in medicinal chemistry, with applications spanning anticancer, antiviral, antimicrobial, and CNS therapies. Comparative advantages over conventional synthesis are highlighted, along with key methodologies and reaction mechanisms, underscoring MAOS as a transformative tool in the design of novel therapeutic agents.
Keywords
Microwave-Assisted Synthesis, Bioactive Heterocycles, Medicinal Chemistry, Green Chemistry, Pharmacological Applications
Published online 4/5/2026, 22 pages
Citation: Shraddha Gautam, Kalpana Swain, Satyanarayan Pattnaik, Microwave-Assisted Bioactive Heterocycles: Applications in Medicinal Chemistry, Materials Research Foundations, Vol. 189, pp 45-66, 2026
DOI: https://doi.org/10.21741/9781644904039-2
Part of the book on Microwave-Assisted Synthesis
References
[1] R.J. Obaid, E.U. Mughal, N. Naeem, M.M. Al-Rooqi, A. Sadiq, R.S. Jassas, Z. Moussa, S.A. Ahmed, Pharmacological significance of nitrogen-containing five and six-membered heterocyclic scaffolds as potent cholinesterase inhibitors for drug discovery, Process Biochem. 120 (2022) 250-259. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.procbio.2022.06.009
[2] M.A.P. Martins, C.P. Frizzo, D.N. Moreira, L. Buriol, P. Machado, Solvent-free heterocyclic synthesis, Chem. Rev. 109 (2009) 4140-4182. https://doi.org/10.1021/cr9001098
[3] A. Daştan, A. Kulkarni, B. Török, Environmentally benign synthesis of heterocyclic compounds by combined microwave-assisted heterogeneous catalytic approaches, Green Chem. 14 (2012) 17-37. https://doi.org/10.1039/C1GC15837F
[4] L. Xochicale-Santana, C.C. Vidyasagar, B. M. Muñoz-Flores, V. M. J. Pérez, Microwave-assisted organic syntheses (MAOS): The green synthetic method, in: B. Kharisov, O. Kharissova (Eds.), Handbook of Greener Synthesis of Nanomaterials and Compounds, Elsevier, New York, 2021, pp. 491-542. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-821938-6.00015-3
[5] N. Sharma, U.K. Sharma, E.V. Van der Eycken, Microwave-assisted organic synthesis: Overview of recent applications, in: W. Zhang, B.W. Cue (Eds.), Green Techniques for Organic Synthesis and Medicinal Chemistry, 2nd ed., John Wiley & Sons, NJ, 2018, pp. 441-468. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119288152.ch17
[6] A. Jha, Microwave assisted synthesis of organic compounds and nanomaterials, in: Nanofibers-Synthesis, Properties and Applications, IntechOpen, 2021. https://doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.98224
[7] S. Maramai, M. Taddei, Microwave Irradiation, in: Stefano Protti, Andrea Palmieri (Eds.), Sustainable Organic Synthesis: Tools and Strategies, The Royal Society of Chemistry, Cambridge, 2021, pp. 488-521. https://doi.org/10.1039/9781839164842-00488
[8] A.K. Mahato,B. M. Sahoo, B. K. Banik, B. C. Mohanta, Microwave-assisted synthesis: Paradigm of green chemistry, J. Indian Chem. Soc. 95 (2018) 1327-1339.
[9] F.A. Bassyouni, S.M. Abu-Bakr, M.A. Rehim, Evolution of microwave irradiation and its application in green chemistry and biosciences, Res. Chem. Intermed. 38 (2012) 283-322. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11164-011-0348-1
[10] O. Ebenezer, M. A. Jordaan, G. Carena, T. Bono, Mi. Shapi, J. A. Tuszynski, An overview of the biological evaluation of selected nitrogen-containing heterocycle medicinal chemistry compounds, Int. J. Mol. Sci. 23 (2022) 8117. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms23158117
[11] P. Prabitha, K. Kolachi, A.B. HM, S. Dubey, Fundamental chemistry of N-heterocycles: Pyrrole and pyrazole chemistry, imidazole chemistry, triazole chemistry advances in heterocyclic ring systems, in: Prashant Tiwari, Popat Mohite (Eds.), Paving the Path to Discoveries and Unlocking the Secrets of N-Heterocycles, Cambridge Scholars Publishing, United Kingdom, 2024, pp. 64-102.
[12] P.K. Maji, Recent progress in the synthesis of pyrimidine heterocycles: A review, Curr. Org. Chem. 24 (2020) 1055-1096. https://doi.org/10.2174/1385272824999200507123843
[13] M. Grazia Martina, L. Giannessi, M. Radi, Multicomponent synthesis of purines and pyrimidines: From the origin of life to new sustainable approaches for drug-discovery applications, Eur. J. Org. Chem. 26 (2023) e202201288. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejoc.202201288
[14] S.N. Anjirwala, P.S. Parmar, S.K. Patel, Synthetic protocols for non-fused pyrimidines, Synth. Commun. 52 (2022) 2079-2121. https://doi.org/10.1080/00397911.2022.2137682
[15] G. Tiwari, A. Khanna, V. K. Mishra and R. Sagar, Recent developments on microwave-assisted organic synthesis of nitrogen- and oxygen-containing preferred heterocyclic scaffolds, RSC Adv. 13 (2023) 32858-32892. https://doi.org/10.1039/D3RA05986C
[16] H. Ruan, J. Jiang, B. Sun, W. Zhang, W. Gao, L. Y. Wang, Z. Ma, A rapid low-temperature internal heating strategy with optimal frequency based on constant polarization voltage for lithium-ion batteries, Appl. Energy 177 (2016) 771-782. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2016.05.151
[17] R.K. Kumarachari, S. Peta, A.S. Surur, Y.T. Mekonnen, Synthesis, characterization and in silico biological activity of some 2-(N,N-dimethyl guanidinyl)-4,6-diaryl pyrimidines, J. Pharm. Bioallied Sci. 8(2016) 181-187. https://doi.org/10.4103/0975-7406.171678
[18] E. Zarenezhad, M. Farjam, A. Iraji, Synthesis and biological activity of pyrimidines-containing hybrids: Focusing on pharmacological application, J. Mol. Struct. 1230 (2021) 129833. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.molstruc.2020.129833
[19] G. Pizzorno, R.B. Diasio, Y.-C. Cheng, Pyrimidine analogs, in: D.W. Kufe, R.E. Pollock, R.R. Weichselbaum, R.C. Bast Jr., T.S. Gansler, J.F. Holland, E. Frei III (Eds.), Holland-Frei Cancer Medicine, 6th ed., BC Decker, Hamilton, 2003, pp. 1327-1339.
[20] C.M. Perry, D. Faulds, Lamivudine: A review of its antiviral activity, pharmacokinetic properties and therapeutic efficacy in the management of HIV infection, Drugs 53 (1997) 657-680. https://doi.org/10.2165/00003495-199753040-00008
[21] S. EG, B. Lakshmanan, A review on therapeutic potential of heterocyclic pyrimidine derivatives as potent antiviral agents, Asian J. Pharm. Clin. Res. (2020) 30-34. https://doi.org/10.22159/ajpcr.2020.v13i7.37430
[22] A. Kumar, A. Mishra, Role of heterocyclic compounds in pharmaceuticals and medicines, J. Exp. Zool. India 26 (2023) 1-?. https://doi.org/10.51470/jez.2023.26.1.1
[23] K. Somandi, Synthesis and biological evaluation of pyrimidine and isoquinoline inhibitors as potential antimalarial antifolates and transmission-blocking agents, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa, 2023.
[24] S. Pant, S. Nain, Recent advances in the development of pyrimidine-based CNS agents, Curr. Drug Discov. Technol. 20 (2023) 14-28. https://doi.org/10.2174/1570163819666221003094402
[25] T. Besson, E. Chosson, Microwave-assisted synthesis of bioactive quinazolines and quinazolinones, Comb. Chem. High Throughput Screen. 10 (2007) 903-917. https://doi.org/10.2174/138620707783220356
[26] L. Mohammadkhani, M.M. Heravi, Microwave-assisted synthesis of quinazolines and quinazolinones: An overview, Front. Chem. 8 (2020) 580086. https://doi.org/10.3389/fchem.2020.580086
[27] S.K. Wahan, S. Sharma, P.A. Chawla, Synthesis of quinazolinone and quinazoline derivatives using green chemistry approach, Phys. Sci. Rev. 8 (2023) 3079-3094. https://doi.org/10.1515/psr-2021-0223
[28] L. Mohammadkhani, M.M. Heravi, Microwave-assisted synthesis of quinazolines and quinazolinones: An overview, Front. Chem. 8 (2020) 580086. https://doi.org/10.3389/fchem.2020.580086
[29] S. Kumar, A. Maurya, A. Agarwal, Microwave-assisted synthesis of heterocyclic scaffolds, SynOpen 8 (2024) 138-152. https://doi.org/10.1055/s-0043-1775379
[30] H.T. Abdel-Mohsen, H. Mohamed, S. Ali, M.A. Ahmed, Recent advances in structural optimization of quinazoline-based protein kinase inhibitors for cancer therapy (2021-present), Molecules 29 (2024) 875. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules29040875
[31] A. Sonousi, R.A. Hassan, E.O. Osman, A.M. Abdou, S.H. Emam, Design and synthesis of novel quinazolinone-based derivatives as EGFR inhibitors with antitumor activity, J. Enzyme Inhib. Med. Chem. 37 (2022) 2644-2659. https://doi.org/10.1080/14756366.2022.2118735
[32] C.M. Benning, N. Kyprianou, Quinazoline-derived α1-adrenoceptor antagonists induce prostate cancer cell apoptosis via an α1-adrenoceptor-independent action, Cancer Res. 62 (2002) 597-602.
[33] I. Anglin, D. Glassman, N. Kyprianou, Induction of prostate apoptosis by α1-adrenoceptor antagonists: Mechanistic significance of the quinazoline component, Prostate Cancer Prostatic Dis. 5 (2002) 88-95. https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.pcan.4500561
[34] B. Akduman, E.D. Crawford, Terazosin, doxazosin, and prazosin: Current clinical experience, Urology 58 (2001) 49-54. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0090-4295(01)01302-4
[35] J. Gawad, C. Bonde, Design, synthesis and biological evaluation of novel 6-(trifluoromethyl)-N-(4-oxothiazolidin-3-yl) quinazoline-2-carboxamide derivatives as potential DprE1 inhibitors, J. Mol. Struct. 1217 (2020) 128394. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.molstruc.2020.128394
[36] J. Dai, L. Li, H. Zhang, X. Liu, Discovery of quinazolone pyridiniums as potential broad-spectrum antibacterial agents, Molecules 30 (2025) 243. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules30020243
[37] Z. Li, X. Wang, Y. Chen, The antibacterial activity of quinazoline and quinazolinone hybrids, Curr. Top. Med. Chem. 22 (2022) 1035-1044. https://doi.org/10.2174/1568026622666220307144015
[38] C. Mendoza-Martínez, P. López, R. Hernández, Design, synthesis and biological evaluation of quinazoline derivatives as anti-trypanosomatid and anti-plasmodial agents, Eur. J. Med. Chem. 96 (2015) 296-307. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejmech.2015.04.028
[39] A. Nzila, B. Okumu, C. Mwangi, Preclinical evaluation of the antifolate QN254, 5-chloro-N′6′-(2,5-dimethoxy-benzyl)-quinazoline-2,4,6-triamine, as an antimalarial drug candidate, Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 54 (2010) 2603-2610. https://doi.org/10.1128/AAC.01526-09
[40] R.S. Cheke, P.A. Chanda, M.F. Olaleye, Quinazoline: An update on current status against convulsions, J. Mol. Struct. 1248 (2022) 131384. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.molstruc.2021.131384
[41] Z. Haghighijoo, M. Khodadadi, R. Mohammadi, Therapeutic potential of quinazoline derivatives for Alzheimer’s disease: A comprehensive review, Eur. J. Med. Chem. 227 (2022) 113949. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejmech.2021.113949
[42] M.F. Zayed, Medicinal chemistry of quinazolines as analgesic and anti-inflammatory agents, ChemEngineering 6 (2022) 94. https://doi.org/10.3390/chemengineering6060094
[43] V. Alagarsamy, S. Thangavel, R. Subramanian, An overview of quinazolines: Pharmacological significance and recent developments, Eur. J. Med. Chem. 151 (2018) 628-685. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejmech.2018.03.076
[44] G. Ahmad, S. Khan, M.A. Farooq, N.H. Siddiqui, N-Heterocycles as promising antiviral agents: A comprehensive overview, Molecules 29 (2024) 2232. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules29102232
[45] T.A. Farghaly, M.S. El-Sayed, R.M. Ali, A literature review focusing on the antiviral activity of [1,2,4] and [1,2,3]-triazoles, Mini Rev. Med. Chem. 24 (2024) 1602-1629. https://doi.org/10.2174/0113895575277122231108095511
[46] M.A. El-Zahabi, R. Hassan, A. Mostafa, Design, synthesis, molecular modeling and anti-hyperglycemic evaluation of quinazoline-sulfonylurea hybrids as peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPARγ) and sulfonylurea receptor (SUR) agonists, Int. J. Mol. Sci. 23 (2022) 9605. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms23179605
[47] S. A. Kumar, S. S. Patel, S. Patel, P. Parikh, Future treatment of diabetes – tyrosine kinase inhibitors, J. Diabetes Metab. Disord. 22 (2022) 61-71. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40200-022-01164-3
[48] S.A. Patil, R. Patil, D.D. Miller, Microwave-assisted synthesis of medicinally relevant indoles, Curr. Med. Chem. 18 (2011) 615-637. https://doi.org/10.2174/092986711794480195
[49] A.K. Rathi, P. Sharma, R.K. Gupta, Microwave-assisted synthesis-catalytic applications in aqueous media, Coord. Chem. Rev. 291 (2015) 68-94. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ccr.2015.01.011
[50] E.C. Creencia, M. Tsukamoto, T. Horaguchi, One-pot-one-step, microwave-assisted Fischer indole synthesis, J. Heterocycl. Chem. 48 (2011) 1095-1102. https://doi.org/10.1002/jhet.689
[51] P. Acosta-Guzmán, Microwave as a greener alternative in the synthesis of organic compounds, in: A. Nag (Ed.), Greener Synthesis of Organic Compounds, CRC Press, Boca Raton, 2022, pp. 57-73. https://doi.org/10.1201/9781003089162-4
[52] O.S. Kamble, M. Khatravath, R. Dandela, Applications of ethynylanilines as substrates for construction of indoles and indole-substituted derivatives, ChemistrySelect 6 (2021) 7408-7427. https://doi.org/10.1002/slct.202101437
[53] M. Bilal, S. Ahmed, K. Hussain, Synthesis of indoles via intermolecular and intramolecular cyclization by using palladium-based catalysts, Catalysts 11 (2021) 1018. https://doi.org/10.3390/catal11091018
[54] Y. Hong, H. Zhao, X. Li, Indole derivatives as tubulin polymerization inhibitors for the development of promising anticancer agents, Bioorg. Med. Chem. 55 (2022) 116597. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bmc.2021.116597
[55] P. Dhyani, C. Quispe, E. Sharma, Anticancer potential of alkaloids: A key emphasis to colchicine, vinblastine, vincristine, vindesine, vinorelbine and vincamine, Cancer Cell Int. 22 (2022) 206. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12935-022-02624-9
[56] B.B. Aggarwal, H. Ichikawa, Molecular targets and anticancer potential of indole-3-carbinol and its derivatives, Cell Cycle 4 (2005) 1201-1215. https://doi.org/10.4161/cc.4.9.1993
[57] M.R. Mohamed, S. Patel, H. Rahman, Anti-tumor activity of indole: A review, Lett. Drug Des. Discov. 21 (2024) 3332-3348. https://doi.org/10.2174/0115701808288928240226104445
[58] S. Singh, N. Sharma, R. Chandra, The indole nucleus as a selective COX-2 inhibitor and anti-inflammatory agent (2011-2022), Org. Chem. Front. 9 (2022) 3624-3639. https://doi.org/10.1039/D2QO00534D
[59] Í.T. Jacob, R. Fernandes, M. Ahamed, Anti-inflammatory activity of novel thiosemicarbazone compounds indole-based as COX inhibitors, Pharmacol. Rep. 73 (2021) 907-925. https://doi.org/10.1007/s43440-021-00221-7
[60] B. Portevin, J. Dupont, F. Martin, 1,3-Diaryl-4,5,6,7-tetrahydro-2H-isoindole derivatives: A new series of potent and selective COX-2 inhibitors in which a sulfonyl group is not a structural requisite, J. Med. Chem. 43 (2000) 4582-4593. https://doi.org/10.1021/jm990965x
[61] Q. Chen, Y. Li, X. Wang, Therapeutic potential of indole derivatives as anti-HIV agents: A mini-review, Curr. Top. Med. Chem. 22 (2022) 993-1008. https://doi.org/10.2174/1568026621666211012111901
[62] H.-L. Qin, Z. Chen, J. Liu, Indole-based derivatives as potential antibacterial activity against methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), Eur. J. Med. Chem. 194 (2020) 112245. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejmech.2020.112245
[63] A.R. Green, D.G. Grahame-Smith, 5-Hydroxytryptamine and other indoles in the central nervous system, in: L.L. Iversen, S.D. Iversen, S.H. Snyder (Eds.), Biochemistry of Biogenic Amines, Plenum Press, New York, 1975, pp. 169-245. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4684-3171-1_4
[64] L. Pellesi, T.P. Do, A. Hougaard, Pharmacological management of migraine: Current strategies and future directions, Expert Opin. Pharmacother. 25 (2024) 673-683. https://doi.org/10.1080/14656566.2024.2349791
[65] S.-Y. Wang, X.-C. Shi, P. Laborda, Indole-based melatonin analogues: Synthetic approaches and biological activity, Eur. J. Med. Chem. 185 (2020) 111847. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejmech.2019.111847
[66] R. Singla, P. Sharma, A. Gupta, Identification of novel indole-based heterocycles as selective estrogen receptor modulators, Bioorg. Chem. 79 (2018) 72-88. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bioorg.2018.04.002
[67] E. Barresi, L. Giannessi, M. Radi, Indole-based compounds in the development of anti-neurodegenerative agents, Molecules 29 (2024) 2127. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules29092127
[68] Y. Zhu, J. Li, X. Zhang, Research progress of indole compounds with potential antidiabetic activity, Eur. J. Med. Chem. 223 (2021) 113665. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejmech.2021.113665
[69] C. Tan, H. Li, P. Wang, Antihypertensive activity of indole and indazole analogues: A review, Arab. J. Chem. 15 (2022) 103756. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.arabjc.2022.103756
[70] N. Kaur, R. Sharma, S. Gupta, Synthesis of five-membered O, N-heterocycles using metal and nonmetal, Synth. Commun. 49 (2019) 1345-1384. https://doi.org/10.1080/00397911.2019.1594308
[71] S. Lokesh Kumar, C. Binish, A comprehensive review of one-pot multicomponent strategies for oxazole synthesis, ChemistrySelect 10 (2025) e01172. https://doi.org/10.1002/slct.202501172
[72] S. Kamila, K. Mendoza, E.R. Biehl, Microwave-assisted Hantzsch thiazole synthesis of N-phenyl-4-(6-phenylimidazo[2,1-b]thiazol-5-yl)thiazol-2-amines from the reaction of 2-chloro-1-(6-phenylimidazo[2,1-b]thiazol-5-yl)ethanones and thioureas, Tetrahedron Lett. 53 (2012) 4921-4924. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tetlet.2012.06.116
[73] E. Deau, F. Langa, M. Rossi, Microwave-assisted synthesis of novel N-(4-phenylthiazol-2-yl)-benzo[d]thiazole-, thiazolo[4,5-b]pyridine-, thiazolo[5,4-b]pyridine- and benzo[d]oxazole-2-carboximidamides inspired by marine topsentines and nortopsentines, Tetrahedron 70 (2014) 5532-5540. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tet.2014.06.102
[74] F. Langa, E. Deau, M. Rossi, Microwave irradiation: More than just a method for accelerating reactions, Contemp. Org. Synth. 4 (1997) 373-386. https://doi.org/10.1039/CO9970400373
[75] A.M. Borcea, I. Ionuț, O. Crișan, O. Oniga, An overview of the synthesis and antimicrobial, antiprotozoal, and antitumor activity of thiazole and bisthiazole derivatives, Molecules 26 (2021) 624. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules26030624
[76] H.-Z. Zhang, Z.-L. Zhao, C.-H. Zhou, Recent advances in oxazole-based medicinal chemistry, Eur. J. Med. Chem. 144 (2018) 444-492. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejmech.2017.12.044
[77] A. Ansari, R. Sharma, P. Kumar, Facile one-pot multicomponent synthesis and molecular docking studies of steroidal oxazole/thiazole derivatives with effective antimicrobial, antibiofilm and hemolytic properties, Steroids 134 (2018) 22-36. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.steroids.2018.04.003
[78] J. Xia, H. Li, S. Chen, Discovery of quaternized pyridine-thiazole-pleuromutilin derivatives with broad-spectrum antibacterial and potent anti-MRSA activity, J. Med. Chem. 66 (2023) 5061-5078. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.jmedchem.2c02135
[79] I.M. Lagoja, E. De Clercq, Anti-influenza virus agents: Synthesis and mode of action, Med. Res. Rev. 28 (2008) 1-38. https://doi.org/10.1002/med.20096
[80] I.P. Singh, S. Gupta, S. Kumar, Thiazole compounds as antiviral agents: An update, Med. Chem. 16 (2020) 4-23. https://doi.org/10.2174/1573406415666190614101253
[81] J. Khan, A. Rani, M. Aslam, R.S. Maharia, G. Pandey, B. Nand, Exploring triazole-based drugs: Synthesis, application, FDA approvals, and clinical trial updates – A comprehensive review, Tetrahedron 162 (2024) 134122. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tet.2024.134122
[82] S. Kulkarni, K. Kaur, V. Jaitak, Recent developments in oxazole derivatives as anticancer agents: Review on synthetic strategies, mechanism of action and SAR studies, Anti-Cancer Agents Med. Chem. 22 (2022) 1859-1882. https://doi.org/10.2174/1871520621666210915095421
[83] M.A. Chiacchio, L. Bianchi, F. Rossi, Oxazole-based compounds as anticancer agents, Curr. Med. Chem. 26 (2019) 7337-7371. https://doi.org/10.2174/0929867326666181203130402
[84] K.E. Arnst, S. Banerjee, H. Chen, S. Deng, D.J. Hwang, W. Li, D.D. Miller, Current advances of tubulin inhibitors as dual acting small molecules for cancer therapy, Med. Res. Rev. 39(4) (2019) 1398-1426. https://doi.org/10.1002/med.21568
[85] Y. Zhang, X. Li, H. Wang, The progress of small molecule targeting Bcr-Abl in the treatment of chronic myeloid leukemia, Mini Rev. Med. Chem. 24 (2024) 642-663. https://doi.org/10.2174/0113895575218335230926070130
[86] M.I. Shosha, F.Z. El-Ablack, E.A. Saad, New thiazole derivative as a potential anticancer and topoisomerase II inhibitor, Sci. Rep. 15 (2025) 710. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-81294-1
[87] F.C. Biaggio, G. Rinaldi, L. Moretti, Synthesis and biological activity of prostaglandin analogs containing heteroatoms in the cyclopentane ring, Curr. Org. Chem. 9 (2005) 419-457. https://doi.org/10.2174/1385272053174912
[88] K.H. Narasimhamurthy, T.R. Swaroop, K.S. Rangappa, A review on progress of thiazole derivatives as potential anti-inflammatory agents, Eur. J. Med. Chem. Rep. 100225 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejmcr.2024.100225
[89] M.K. Kumawat, Thiazole-containing heterocycles with antimalarial activity, Curr. Drug Discov. Technol. 15 (2018) 196-200. https://doi.org/10.2174/1570163814666170725114159
[90] T. Kalita, P. Sharma, R. Kaur, A review on synthetic thiazole derivatives as an antimalarial agent, Curr. Drug Discov. Technol. 21 (2024) 10-42. https://doi.org/10.2174/0115701638276379231223101625
[91] R.K. Singh, A. Patel, S. Gupta, Antimicrobial and antimalarial evaluation of some novel 1,3-oxazole derivatives, Chem. Biol. Interface 7 (2017) 116-123.
[92] D. Patel, R. Sharma, P. Singh, Review on therapeutic diversity of oxazole scaffold: An update, ChemistrySelect 9 (2024) e202403179. https://doi.org/10.1002/slct.202403179
[93] S.A. Saganuwan, Functional chemical groups that may likely become a source for the synthesis of novel central nervous system (CNS) acting drugs, CNS Agents Med. Chem. 17 (2017) 178-186. https://doi.org/10.2174/1871524917666170502153752
[94] A. Dorababu, Synthesis, pharmacological evaluation and structure-activity relationship of recently discovered enzyme antagonist azoles, Heliyon 6 (2020) e03656. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2020.e03656
[95] M.A. Subbaiah, N.A. Meanwell, Bioisosteres of the phenyl ring: Recent strategic applications in lead optimization and drug design, J. Med. Chem. 64 (2021) 14046-14128. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.jmedchem.1c01215
[96] M. Kaspady, R. Sharma, A. Singh, Synthesis, antibacterial activity of 2,4-disubstituted oxazoles and thiazoles as bioisosteres, Lett. Drug Des. Discov. 6 (2009) 21-28. https://doi.org/10.2174/157018009787158481
[97] A. Siwach, P.K. Verma, Synthesis and therapeutic potential of imidazole containing compounds, BMC Chem. 15 (2021) 1-69. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13065-020-00730-1
[98] X.-L. Yu, Y. Zhang, H. Li, Synthesis of imidazole-based molecules under ultrasonic irradiation approaches, Molecules 28 (2023) 4845. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules28124845
[99] T.T. Hieu, L. Nguyen, P. Tran, Recent achievement in the synthesis of imidazoles, Curr. Org. Chem. 27 (2023) 1398-1446. https://doi.org/10.2174/0113852728259414231010050749
[100] I. Abdellah, S. Ahmed, M. Hassan, Advancements in green chemistry: Microwave-assisted synthesis of poly-heterocyclic compounds in aqueous media, Int. J. Cur. Res. Sci. Eng. Tech. 7 (2024) 16-26. https://doi.org/10.30967/IJCRSET/Mohamed-R-Eletmany/127
[101] A. Kokel, C. Schäfer, B. Török, Application of microwave-assisted heterogeneous catalysis in sustainable synthesis design, Green Chem. 19 (2017) 3729-3751. https://doi.org/10.1039/C7GC01393K
[102] A. Vitiello, F. Ferrara, M. Boccellino, A. Ponzo, C. Cimmino, E. Comberiati, A. Zovi, S. Clemente, M. Sabbatucci, Antifungal drug resistance: An emergent health threat, Biomedicines 11(4) (2023) 1063. https://doi.org/10.3390/biomedicines11041063
[103] N. Kumar, N. Goel, Recent development of imidazole derivatives as potential anticancer agents, Phys. Sci. Rev. 8 (2023) 2903-2941. https://doi.org/10.1515/psr-2021-0041
[104] I. Ali, M.N. Lone, H.Y. Aboul-Enein, Imidazoles as potential anticancer agents, Med. Chem. Comm. 8 (2017) 1742-1773. https://doi.org/10.1039/C7MD00067G
[105] A.-M. Alaa, K.E. ElTahir, Y.A. Asiri, Synthesis, anti-inflammatory activity and COX-1/COX-2 inhibition of novel substituted cyclic imides. Part 1: Molecular docking study, Eur. J. Med. Chem. 46 (2011) 1648-1655. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejmech.2011.02.013
[106] R. Giugliano, G. Della Sala, C. Buonocore, C. Zannella, P. Tedesco, F. Palma Esposito, C. Ragozzino, A. Chianese, M.V. Morone, V. Mazzella, L. Núñez-Pons, V. Folliero, G. Franci, A. De Filippis, M. Galdiero, D. de Pascale, New imidazolium alkaloids with broad spectrum of action from the marine bacterium Shewanella aquimarina, Pharmaceutics 15(8) (2023) 2139. https://doi.org/10.3390/pharmaceutics15082139
[107] S.A. Saganuwan, Conversion of benzimidazoles, imidazothiazoles and imidazoles into more potent central nervous system acting drugs, CNS Agents Med. Chem. 20 (2020) 3-12. https://doi.org/10.2174/1871524919666190621160323
[108] K.K. Goel, P. Sharma, R. Kumar, Imidazoles as serotonin receptor modulators for treatment of depression: Structural insights and structure-activity relationship studies, Pharmaceutics 15 (2023) 2208. https://doi.org/10.3390/pharmaceutics15092208
