3D concrete printing technology: Progress and prospects for sustainable construction
Nada Oulad Moussa, Mohamed El Haim, Loubaba Rida
Abstract. The evolution of the 3D concrete printing technology is a breakthrough in the history of construction technologies. Three‑dimensional concrete printing can streamline building processes, reducing material waste and labor time while boosting overall productivity. The technology has many environmental sustainability potentials by saving material waste, labor dependence, formwork disassembly, and energy-efficient building materials. This study highlights recent progress in 3DCP materials and applications, along with the associated challenges and prospects. The paper emphasizes the mechanical behavior, durability, and long service life of low-carbon 3D-printed concrete and significant problems such as printability, long durability, and interlayer adhesion. To address sustainability challenges, we talk about eco-friendly alternatives such as alkali-activated geopolymers, calcium-sulfo-aluminate, and limestone-calcined-clay cements. Such materials lower the carbon footprint of cementitious composites and improve the long-term strength performance of building elements. 3DPC represents a significant shift towards more sustainable production and anticipates further advancements in this revolutionized construction.
Keywords
3D Printed Concrete, Sustainable Construction, Low-Carbon Concrete, Eco-Friendly Materials, Digital Fabrication
Published online 1/10/2026, 8 pages
Copyright © 2026 by the author(s)
Published under license by Materials Research Forum LLC., Millersville PA, USA
Citation: Nada Oulad Moussa, Mohamed El Haim, Loubaba Rida, 3D concrete printing technology: Progress and prospects for sustainable construction, Materials Research Proceedings, Vol. 58, pp 62-69, 2026
DOI: https://doi.org/10.21741/9781644903933-9
The article was published as article 9 of the book Emerging Research in Materials for Environment, and Civil Infrastructure
Content from this work may be used under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 license. Any further distribution of this work must maintain attribution to the author(s) and the title of the work, journal citation and DOI.
References
[1] I. Agustí-Juan and G. Habert, “Environmental design guidelines for digital fabrication,” J Clean Prod, vol. 142, pp. 2780–2791, Jan. 2017. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JCLEPRO.2016.10.190
[2] S. Sbahieh, M. Zaher Serdar, and S. G. Al-Ghamdi, “Decarbonization strategies of building materials used in the construction industry,” Mater Today Proc, Sep. 2023. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.MATPR.2023.08.346
[3] T. Tabassum and A. Ahmad Mir, “A review of 3d printing technology-the future of sustainable construction,” Mater Today Proc, vol. 93, pp. 408–414, Jan. 2023. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.MATPR.2023.08.013
[4] S. A. M. Tofail, E. P. Koumoulos, A. Bandyopadhyay, S. Bose, L. O’Donoghue, and C. Charitidis, “Additive manufacturing: scientific and technological challenges, market uptake and opportunities,” Materials Today, vol. 21, no. 1, pp. 22–37, Jan. 2018. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.MATTOD.2017.07.001
[5] F. Craveiro, S. Nazarian, H. Bartolo, P. J. Bartolo, and J. Pinto Duarte, “An automated system for 3D printing functionally graded concrete-based materials,” Addit Manuf, vol. 33, p. 101146, May 2020. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ADDMA.2020.101146
[6] M. Adaloudis and J. Bonnin Roca, “Sustainability tradeoffs in the adoption of 3D Concrete Printing in the construction industry,” J Clean Prod, vol. 307, p. 127201, Jul. 2021. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JCLEPRO.2021.127201
[7] V. Mechtcherine, V. N. Nerella, F. Will, M. Näther, J. Otto, and M. Krause, “Large-scale digital concrete construction – CONPrint3D concept for on-site, monolithic 3D-printing,” Autom Constr, vol. 107, p. 102933, Nov. 2019. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.AUTCON.2019.102933
[8] S. Bhattacherjee et al., “Sustainable materials for 3D concrete printing,” Cem Concr Compos, vol. 122, p. 104156, Sep. 2021. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.CEMCONCOMP.2021.104156
[9] Y. A. Al-Noaimat et al., “3D printing of limestone-calcined clay cement: A review of its potential implementation in the construction industry,” Results in Engineering, vol. 18, p. 101115, Jun. 2023. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.RINENG.2023.101115
[10] A. H. Alami, A. G. Olabi, M. Ayoub, H. Aljaghoub, S. Alasad, and M. A. Abdelkareem, “3D Concrete Printing: Recent Progress, Applications, Challenges, and Role in Achieving Sustainable Development Goals,” Buildings 2023, Vol. 13, Page 924, vol. 13, no. 4, p. 924, Mar. 2023. https://doi.org/10.3390/BUILDINGS13040924
[11] P. Panchal and M. S. Choi, “A review on effect of natural fibers to mitigate CO2 footprint and enhance engineering properties of 3D printing concrete,” Journal of Building Engineering, vol. 111, p. 113562, Oct. 2025. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JOBE.2025.113562
[12] Z. Malaeb, F. AlSakka, and F. Hamzeh, “3D Concrete Printing: Machine Design, Mix Proportioning, and Mix Comparison Between Different Machine Setups,” 3D Concrete Printing Technology: Construction and Building Applications, pp. 115–136, Jan. 2019. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-815481-6.00006-3
[13] Y. A. Al-Noaimat, S. H. Ghaffar, M. Chougan, and M. J. Al-Kheetan, “A review of 3D printing low-carbon concrete with one-part geopolymer: Engineering, environmental and economic feasibility,” Case Studies in Construction Materials, vol. 18, p. e01818, Jul. 2023. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.CSCM.2022.E01818
[14] S. H. Bong, M. Xia, B. Nematollahi, and C. Shi, “Ambient temperature cured ‘just-add-water’ geopolymer for 3D concrete printing applications,” Cem Concr Compos, vol. 121, p. 104060, Aug. 2021. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.CEMCONCOMP.2021.104060
[15] L. Rida, K. Bazzar, and A. H. Alaoui, “High-Volume Fly Ash Mortar Solution for Sustainable Development,” Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing, vol. 1104 AISC, pp. 386–395, 2020. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-36671-1_33
[16] N. B. Singh and B. Middendorf, “Geopolymers as an alternative to Portland cement: An overview,” Constr Build Mater, vol. 237, p. 117455, Mar. 2020. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.CONBUILDMAT.2019.117455
[17] S. Muthukrishnan, S. Ramakrishnan, and J. Sanjayan, “Effect of alkali reactions on the rheology of one-part 3D printable geopolymer concrete,” Cem Concr Compos, vol. 116, p. 103899, Feb. 2021. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.CEMCONCOMP.2020.103899
[18] M. H. Raza, R. Y. Zhong, and M. Khan, “Recent advances and productivity analysis of 3D printed geopolymers,” Addit Manuf, vol. 52, p. 102685, Apr. 2022. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ADDMA.2022.102685
[19] B. Panda, G. B. Singh, C. Unluer, and M. J. Tan, “Synthesis and characterization of one-part geopolymers for extrusion based 3D concrete printing,” J Clean Prod, vol. 220, pp. 610–619, May 2019. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JCLEPRO.2019.02.185
[20] X. Zhu, J. Wang, M. Yang, J. Xiao, Y. Zhang, and F. A. Gilabert, “Performance modulation and optimization of PE fiber reinforced 3D-printed geopolymer,” Constr Build Mater, vol. 429, p. 136449, May 2024. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.CONBUILDMAT.2024.136449
[21] M. V. Tran, T. H. Vu, and T. H. Y. Nguyen, “Simplified assessment for one-part 3D-printable geopolymer concrete based on slump and slump flow measurements,” Case Studies in Construction Materials, vol. 18, p. e01889, Jul. 2023. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.CSCM.2023.E01889
[22] X. Guo, J. Yang, and G. Xiong, “Influence of supplementary cementitious materials on rheological properties of 3D printed fly ash based geopolymer,” Cem Concr Compos, vol. 114, p. 103820, Nov. 2020. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.CEMCONCOMP.2020.103820
[23] M. B. Jaji, G. P. A. G. van Zijl, and A. J. Babafemi, “Durability and pore structure of metakaolin-based 3D printed geopolymer concrete,” Constr Build Mater, vol. 422, p. 135847, Apr. 2024. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.CONBUILDMAT.2024.135847
[24] M. A. G. Aranda and A. G. De la Torre, “Sulfoaluminate cement,” Eco-Efficient Concrete, pp. 488–522, Jan. 2013. https://doi.org/10.1533/9780857098993.4.488
[25] G. A. N. Yanze et al., “Development of calcium sulfoaluminate cements from rich-alumina bauxite and marble wastes: Physicochemical and microstructural characterization,” International Journal of Ceramic Engineering & Science, vol. 6, no. 3, p. e10216, May 2024. https://doi.org/10.1002/CES2.10216
[26] J. Park, J. Seo, S. Park, A. Cho, and H. K. Lee, “Phase profiling of carbonation-cured calcium sulfoaluminate cement,” Cem Concr Res, vol. 189, p. 107776, Mar. 2025. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.CEMCONRES.2024.107776
[27] M. K. Mohan, A. V. Rahul, G. De Schutter, and K. Van Tittelboom, “Early age hydration, rheology and pumping characteristics of CSA cement-based 3D printable concrete,” Constr Build Mater, vol. 275, p. 122136, Mar. 2021. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.CONBUILDMAT.2020.122136
[28] N. Khalil, G. Aouad, K. El Cheikh, and S. Rémond, “Use of calcium sulfoaluminate cements for setting control of 3D-printing mortars,” Constr Build Mater, vol. 157, pp. 382–391, Dec. 2017. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.CONBUILDMAT.2017.09.109
[29] S. Kim, T. Kim, B. Kim, H. dae Kim, J. Kim, and H. Lee, “Early hydration and hardening of OPC-CSA blends for cementitious structure of 3D printing,” Advances in Applied Ceramics, vol. 119, no. 7, pp. 393–397, Oct. 2020. https://doi.org/10.1080/17436753.2020.1777505
[30] S. Kim, T. Kim, B. Kim, H. dae Kim, J. Kim, and H. Lee, “Early hydration and hardening of OPC-CSA blends for cementitious structure of 3D printing,” Advances in Applied Ceramics, vol. 119, no. 7, pp. 393–397, Oct. 2020. https://doi.org/10.1080/17436753.2020.1777505
[31] K. Scrivener, F. Martirena, S. Bishnoi, and S. Maity, “Calcined clay limestone cements (LC3),” Cem Concr Res, vol. 114, pp. 49–56, Dec. 2018. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.CEMCONRES.2017.08.017
[32] K. A. Ibrahim, G. P. A. G. van Zijl, and A. J. Babafemi, “Influence of limestone calcined clay cement on properties of 3D printed concrete for sustainable construction,” Journal of Building Engineering, vol. 69, p. 106186, Jun. 2023. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JOBE.2023.106186
[33] H. ; Li, J. ; Wei, K. H. Khayat, H. Li, J. Wei, and K. H. Khayat, “3D Printing of Fiber-Reinforced Calcined Clay-Limestone-Based Cementitious Materials: From Mixture Design to Printability Evaluation,” Buildings 2024, Vol. 14, Page 1666, vol. 14, no. 6, p. 1666, Jun. 2024. https://doi.org/10.3390/BUILDINGS14061666
[34] Y. Chen, S. He, Y. Zhang, Z. Wan, O. Çopuroğlu, and E. Schlangen, “3D printing of calcined clay-limestone-based cementitious materials,” Cem Concr Res, vol. 149, p. 106553, Nov. 2021. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.CEMCONRES.2021.106553
[35] Y. Tarhan, İ. H. Tarhan, and R. Şahin, “Comprehensive Review of Binder Matrices in 3D Printing Construction: Rheological Perspectives,” Buildings 2025, Vol. 15, Page 75, vol. 15, no. 1, p. 75, Dec. 2024. https://doi.org/10.3390/BUILDINGS15010075
[36] W. Jin, C. Roux, C. Ouellet-Plamondon, and J. F. Caron, “Life cycle assessment of limestone calcined clay concrete: Potential for low-carbon 3D printing,” Sustainable Materials and Technologies, vol. 41, p. e01119, Sep. 2024. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.SUSMAT.2024.E01119
[37] M. B. Jaji, G. P. A. G. van Zijl, and A. J. Babafemi, “Durability and pore structure of metakaolin-based 3D printed geopolymer concrete,” Constr Build Mater, vol. 422, p. 135847, Apr. 2024. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.CONBUILDMAT.2024.135847
[38] Y. Chen et al., “Rheology control and shrinkage mitigation of 3D printed geopolymer concrete using nanocellulose and magnesium oxide,” Constr Build Mater, vol. 429, p. 136421, May 2024. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.CONBUILDMAT.2024.136421
[39] H. ; Li, J. ; Wei, K. H. Khayat, H. Li, J. Wei, and K. H. Khayat, “3D Printing of Fiber-Reinforced Calcined Clay-Limestone-Based Cementitious Materials: From Mixture Design to Printability Evaluation,” Buildings 2024, Vol. 14, Page 1666, vol. 14, no. 6, p. 1666, Jun. 2024. https://doi.org/10.3390/BUILDINGS14061666
[40] M. Salmi, O. Sucharda, J. Akmal, S. Surehali, A. Tripathi, and N. Neithalath, “Anisotropy in Additively Manufactured Concrete Specimens under Compressive Loading—Quantification of the Effects of Layer Height and Fiber Reinforcement,” Materials 2023, Vol. 16, Page 5488, vol. 16, no. 15, p. 5488, Aug. 2023. https://doi.org/10.3390/MA16155488

