Recent Developments in the Energy Storage Applications using Polymer Composites
VIPIN Cyriac, PRADEEP Nayak, SUDHAKAR Y.N.
Polymer composites are highly efficient and environmentally friendly. These materials not only offer a substantial weight reduction but also exhibit resistance to fatigue and corrosion. They provide excellent “strength to weight” and “stiffness to weight” ratios. Due to their flexibility, cost-effectiveness, and lightness, polymer composites are promising candidates for energy storage applications. However, despite these advantages, they still encounter several challenges. This chapter explores the complexity of composite structures and the relationship between structural parameters. It also addresses the necessity of fillers in polymers for energy storage. The chapter examines the enhancement of conductivity and the types of fillers used in polymer composites, such as carbon-based and metal oxide fillers. Additionally, it covers the applications and recent advancements of polymer composites in supercapacitors. Finally, the chapter provides insights into the challenges and future potential of polymer composites as electrolytes.
Keywords
Polymer Composites, Energy Storage, Supercapacitors, Fillers, Nanocomposites
Published online 10/20/2025, 18 pages
Citation: VIPIN Cyriac, PRADEEP Nayak, SUDHAKAR Y.N., Recent Developments in the Energy Storage Applications using Polymer Composites, Materials Research Foundations, Vol. 182, pp 39-56, 2025
DOI: https://doi.org/10.21741/9781644903797-4
Part of the book on Electrocatalysts and Advanced Materials for Sustainable Energy Storage
References
[1] O. I. O., A. S. O., T. A. S., A. I. M., O. O. F., and O. A. O., “Polymer-based nanocomposites for supercapacitor applications: a review on principles, production and products,” RSC Adv, vol. 15, no. 10, pp. 7509–7534, 2025. https://doi.org/10.1039/D4RA08601E
[2] J. O. Dennis et al., “A Review of Current Trends on Polyvinyl Alcohol (PVA)-Based Solid Polymer Electrolytes,” Molecules, vol. 28, no. 4, p. 1781, Feb. 2023. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules28041781
[3] A. Mendhe and H. S. Panda, “A review on electrolytes for supercapacitor device,” Discov Mater, vol. 3, no. 1, p. 29, Oct. 2023. https://doi.org/10.1007/s43939-023-00065-3
[4] C. Zhao and W. Zheng, “A Review for Aqueous Electrochemical Supercapacitors,” Front Energy Res, vol. 3, May 2015. https://doi.org/10.3389/fenrg.2015.00023
[5] S. Biswas and A. Chowdhury, “Organic Supercapacitors as the Next Generation Energy Storage Device: Emergence, Opportunity, and Challenges,” ChemPhysChem, vol. 24, no. 3, Feb. 2023. https://doi.org/10.1002/cphc.202200567
[6] X. Chen and R. Holze, “Polymer Electrolytes for Supercapacitors,” Polymers (Basel), vol. 16, no. 22, p. 3164, Nov. 2024. https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16223164
[7] S. Jayanthi et al., “The Transformative Role of Nano-SiO2 in Polymer Electrolytes for Enhanced Energy Storage Solutions,” Processes, vol. 12, no. 10, p. 2174, Oct. 2024. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr12102174
[8] N. B. Mohammed et al., “Natural Solid-State Hydrogel Electrolytes Based on 3D Pure Cotton/Graphene for Supercapacitor Application,” Micromachines (Basel), vol. 14, no. 7, p. 1379, Jul. 2023. https://doi.org/10.3390/mi14071379
[9] S. Jayanthi et al., “The Transformative Role of Nano-SiO2 in Polymer Electrolytes for Enhanced Energy Storage Solutions,” Processes, vol. 12, no. 10, p. 2174, Oct. 2024. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr12102174
[10] V. R. Jeedi, K. K. Ganta, I. S. R. Varma, M. Yalla, S. Narender Reddy, and A. S. Chary, “Alumina Nanofiller Functionality on Electrical and Ion Transport Properties of PEO-PVdF/KNO3/SN Nanocomposite Polymer Electrolytes,” Results Chem, vol. 5, p. 100814, Jan. 2023. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rechem.2023.100814
[11] K. Suhailath, M. T. Ramesan, B. Naufal, P. Periyat, V. C. Jasna, and P. Jayakrishnan, “Synthesis, characterisation and flame, thermal and electrical properties of poly (n-butyl methacrylate)/titanium dioxide nanocomposites,” Polymer Bulletin, vol. 74, no. 3, pp. 671–688, Mar. 2017. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00289-016-1737-9
[12] Ph. Dubois and M. Alexandre, “Performant Clay/Carbon Nanotube Polymer Nanocomposites,” Adv Eng Mater, vol. 8, no. 3, pp. 147–154, Mar. 2006. https://doi.org/10.1002/adem.200500256
[13] H. Mao and X. Wang, “Use of in-situ polymerization in the preparation of graphene / polymer nanocomposites,” New Carbon Materials, vol. 35, no. 4, pp. 336–343, Jul. 2020. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1872-5805(20)60493-0
[14] C. A. C. Chazot, C. K. Jons, and A. J. Hart, “In Situ Interfacial Polymerization: A Technique for Rapid Formation of Highly Loaded Carbon Nanotube‐Polymer Composites,” Adv Funct Mater, vol. 30, no. 52, Dec. 2020. https://doi.org/10.1002/adfm.202005499
[15] Ph. Dubois and M. Alexandre, “Performant Clay/Carbon Nanotube Polymer Nanocomposites,” Adv Eng Mater, vol. 8, no. 3, pp. 147–154, Mar. 2006. https://doi.org/10.1002/adem.200500256
[16] G. Viswanathan et al., “Single-Step in Situ Synthesis of Polymer-Grafted Single-Wall Nanotube Composites,” J Am Chem Soc, vol. 125, no. 31, pp. 9258–9259, Aug. 2003. https://doi.org/10.1021/ja0354418
[17] L. Y. Yeo and J. R. Friend, “Electrospinning carbon nanotube polymer composite nanofibers,” J Exp Nanosci, vol. 1, no. 2, pp. 177–209, Jun. 2006. https://doi.org/10.1080/17458080600670015
[18] Y.-E. Miao, J. Yan, Y. Huang, W. Fan, and T. Liu, “Electrospun polymer nanofiber membrane electrodes and an electrolyte for highly flexible and foldable all-solid-state supercapacitors,” RSC Adv, vol. 5, no. 33, pp. 26189–26196, 2015. https://doi.org/10.1039/C5RA00138B
[19] O. Breuer and U. Sundararaj, “Big returns from small fibers: A review of polymer/carbon nanotube composites,” Polym Compos, vol. 25, no. 6, pp. 630–645, Dec. 2004. https://doi.org/10.1002/pc.20058
[20] P. Pötschke et al., “Melt Mixing as Method to Disperse Carbon Nanotubes into Thermoplastic Polymers,” Fullerenes, Nanotubes and Carbon Nanostructures, vol. 13, no. sup1, pp. 211–224, Apr. 2005. https://doi.org/10.1081/FST-200039267
[21] C. Lee and M. D. Dadmun, “Improving the dispersion and interfaces in polymer‐carbon nanotube nanocomposites by sample preparation choice,” J Polym Sci B Polym Phys, vol. 46, no. 16, pp. 1747–1759, Aug. 2008. https://doi.org/10.1002/polb.21510
[22] J.-V. Lim, S.-T. Bee, L. Tin Sin, C. T. Ratnam, and Z. A. Abdul Hamid, “A Review on the Synthesis, Properties, and Utilities of Functionalized Carbon Nanoparticles for Polymer Nanocomposites,” Polymers (Basel), vol. 13, no. 20, p. 3547, Oct. 2021. https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13203547
[23] M. Najafloo and L. Naji, “Resilient 3D porous self-healable triple network hydrogels reinforced with graphene oxide for high-performance flexible supercapacitors,” J Alloys Compd, vol. 1002, p. 175235, Oct. 2024. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jallcom.2024.175235
[24] S. A. Shah, H. Ali, M. I. Inayat, E. E. Mahmoud, H. AL Garalleh, and B. Ahmad, “Effect of carbon nanotubes and zinc oxide on electrical and mechanical properties of polyvinyl alcohol matrix composite by electrospinning method,” Sci Rep, vol. 14, no. 1, p. 28107, Nov. 2024. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-79477-x
[25] J. Ojur Dennis et al., “Effect of ZnO Nanofiller on Structural and Electrochemical Performance Improvement of Solid Polymer Electrolytes Based on Polyvinyl Alcohol–Cellulose Acetate–Potassium Carbonate Composites,” Molecules, vol. 27, no. 17, p. 5528, Aug. 2022. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules27175528
[26] C. Poochai et al., “Alpha-MnO2 nanofibers/nitrogen and sulfur-co-doped reduced graphene oxide for 4.5 V quasi-solid state supercapacitors using ionic liquid-based polymer electrolyte,” J Colloid Interface Sci, vol. 583, pp. 734–745, Feb. 2021. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcis.2020.09.045
[27] X. Yang, F. Zhang, L. Zhang, T. Zhang, Y. Huang, and Y. Chen, “A High‐Performance Graphene Oxide‐Doped Ion Gel as Gel Polymer Electrolyte for All‐Solid‐State Supercapacitor Applications,” Adv Funct Mater, vol. 23, no. 26, pp. 3353–3360, Jul. 2013. https://doi.org/10.1002/adfm.201203556
[28] N. B. Mohammed et al., “Natural Solid-State Hydrogel Electrolytes Based on 3D Pure Cotton/Graphene for Supercapacitor Application,” Micromachines (Basel), vol. 14, no. 7, p. 1379, Jul. 2023. https://doi.org/10.3390/mi14071379
[29] T. Jorn-am, P. Supchocksoonthorn, W. Pholauyphon, J. Manyam, C. Chanthad, and P. Paoprasert, “Quasi-Solid, Bio-Renewable Supercapacitors Based on Cassava Peel and Cassava Starch and the Use of Carbon Dots as Performance Enhancers,” Energy & Fuels, vol. 36, no. 14, pp. 7865–7877, Jul. 2022. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.energyfuels.2c01263
[30] M.-J. Shi, S.-Z. Kou, B.-S. Shen, J.-W. Lang, Z. Yang, and X.-B. Yan, “Improving the performance of all-solid-state supercapacitors by modifying ionic liquid gel electrolytes with graphene nanosheets prepared by arc-discharge,” Chinese Chemical Letters, vol. 25, no. 6, pp. 859–864, Jun. 2014. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cclet.2014.04.010
[31] X. Yang, F. Zhang, L. Zhang, T. Zhang, Y. Huang, and Y. Chen, “A High‐Performance Graphene Oxide‐Doped Ion Gel as Gel Polymer Electrolyte for All‐Solid‐State Supercapacitor Applications,” Adv Funct Mater, vol. 23, no. 26, pp. 3353–3360, Jul. 2013. https://doi.org/10.1002/adfm.201203556
[32] A. Rajani, T. Singh Anand, and P. Dave, “REVIEW ON SYNTHESIS OF METAL DOPED METAL OXIDE NANOCOMPOSITES BY SOL-GEL METHOD TO EXAMINE PHOTO-CATALYTIC ACTIVITY TO DISTINGUISH DIFFERENT ORGANIC-INORGANIC CONTAMINANTS,” International Journal of Creative Research Thoughts, vol. 8, pp. 2320–2882, 2020, Accessed: May 28, 2025. [Online]. Available: www.ijcrt.org
[33] Q. Ji, X. Wang, Y. Zhang, Q. Kong, and Y. Xia, “Characterization of Poly (ethylene terephthalate)/SiO2 nanocomposites prepared by Sol–Gel method,” Compos Part A Appl Sci Manuf, vol. 40, no. 6–7, pp. 878–882, Jul. 2009. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesa.2009.04.010
[34] A. Moghadam, M. Salmani Mobarakeh, M. Safaei, and S. Kariminia, “Synthesis and characterization of novel bio-nanocomposite of polyvinyl alcohol-Arabic gum-magnesium oxide via direct blending method,” Carbohydr Polym, vol. 260, p. 117802, May 2021. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbpol.2021.117802
[35] C. Dossin Zanrosso, D. Piazza, and M. A. Lansarin, “PVDF/ZnO composite films for photocatalysis: A comparative study of solution mixing and melt blending methods,” Polym Eng Sci, vol. 60, no. 6, pp. 1146–1157, Jun. 2020. https://doi.org/10.1002/pen.25368
[36] N. A. Slesarenko et al., “Nanocomposite Polymer Gel Electrolyte Based on TiO2 Nanoparticles for Lithium Batteries,” Membranes (Basel), vol. 13, no. 9, p. 776, Sep. 2023. https://doi.org/10.3390/membranes13090776
[37] D. W. Kim, S. M. Jung, and H. Y. Jung, “A super-thermostable, flexible supercapacitor for ultralight and high performance devices,” J Mater Chem A Mater, vol. 8, no. 2, pp. 532–542, 2020. https://doi.org/10.1039/C9TA11275H
[38] B. Scrosati, F. Croce, and L. Persi, “Impedance Spectroscopy Study of PEO-Based Nanocomposite Polymer Electrolytes,” J Electrochem Soc, vol. 147, no. 5, p. 1718, 2000. https://doi.org/10.1149/1.1393423
[39] W. Wang and P. Alexandridis, “Composite Polymer Electrolytes: Nanoparticles Affect Structure and Properties,” Polymers (Basel), vol. 8, no. 11, p. 387, Nov. 2016. https://doi.org/10.3390/polym8110387
[40] K. Wongsaprom, P. Insee, N. Boonraksa, and E. Swatsitang, “Enhancement of electrochemical performance in supercapacitors using TiO2 nanoparticles-doped PVA-KOH gel electrolyte,” Journal of Electroanalytical Chemistry, vol. 978, p. 118886, Feb. 2025. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jelechem.2024.118886
[41] Y. M. Volfkovich, A. Y. Rychagov, V. E. Sosenkin, S. A. Baskakov, E. N. Kabachkov, and Y. M. Shulga, “Supercapacitor Properties of rGO-TiO2 Nanocomposite in Two-component Acidic Electrolyte,” Materials, vol. 15, no. 21, p. 7856, Nov. 2022. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15217856
[42] M. Hwang et al., “Composite solid polymer electrolyte with silica filler for structural supercapacitor applications,” Korean Journal of Chemical Engineering, vol. 38, no. 2, pp. 454–460, Feb. 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11814-020-0695-y
[43] T.-R. Kuo, L.-Y. Lin, K.-Y. Lin, and S. Yougbaré, “Effects of size and phase of TiO2 in poly (vinyl alcohol)-based gel electrolyte on energy storage ability of flexible capacitive supercapacitors,” J Energy Storage, vol. 52, p. 104773, Aug. 2022. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.est.2022.104773
[44] P. F. R. Ortega, J. P. C. Trigueiro, G. G. Silva, and R. L. Lavall, “Improving supercapacitor capacitance by using a novel gel nanocomposite polymer electrolyte based on nanostructured SiO2, PVDF and imidazolium ionic liquid,” Electrochim Acta, vol. 188, pp. 809–817, Jan. 2016. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electacta.2015.12.056
[45] W. Zhang et al., “Sandwich Structured Metal oxide/Reduced Graphene Oxide/Metal Oxide‐Based Polymer Electrolyte Enables Continuous Inorganic–Organic Interphase for Fast Lithium‐Ion Transportation,” Small, vol. 19, no. 19, May 2023. https://doi.org/10.1002/smll.202207536
