Transition Metal based Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells

Transition Metal based Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells

Kayal Kumari, Navneet Kaur, Kailash Devi, Deepika Jamwal

The dye-sensitized solar cell (DSSCs), a next-generation solar technology has received more interest because it achieved about 7% efficiency in 1991. The exceptional electrical, optical, and catalytic capabilities of transition metal chalcogenides (TMCs) like MoS₂, WS₂, ZnTe, or ZnSe are making them increasingly popular in DSSCs. Dye-sensitized solar cells are considered an ideal indoor photovoltaic (PV) technology because of their outstanding performance despite scattered indoor light, affordability, remarkable adaptability, semi-transparent nature, along the accessibility of a wide range of colors. To minimize the expense of the typically utilized platinum (Pt) counter electrode (CE), many compounds exhibiting strong electrocatalytic performance are being applied to CEs in DSSCs. As a result of their potential for usage across a broad range of applications, such as industrial lubricants as well as electronics, transition metal chalcogenides represent a significant class material that has recently received a great deal of intrigue.

Keywords
Dye-Sensitized Solar Cell, Transition Metal Chalcogenides, Photovoltaic, Counter Electrode

Published online 9/10/2025, 31 pages

Citation: Kayal Kumari, Navneet Kaur, Kailash Devi, Deepika Jamwal, Transition Metal based Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells, Materials Research Foundations, Vol. 179, pp 145-175, 2025

DOI: https://doi.org/10.21741/9781644903711-7

Part of the book on Applications for Earth-Abundant Transition Metals

References
[1] D. Wang, Y. Li, Bimetallic Nanocrystals: Liquid‐Phase Synthesis and Catalytic Applications, Advanced Materials 23 (2011) 1044–1060. https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.201003695
[2] Chemistry of the Elements, n.d
[3] Z. Ali, T. Zhang, M. Asif, L. Zhao, Y. Yu, Y. Hou, Transition metal chalcogenide anodes for sodium storage, Materials Today 35 (2020) 131–167. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mattod.2019.11.008
[4] G.R. Patzke, Y. Zhou, R. Kontic, F. Conrad, Oxide Nanomaterials: Synthetic Developments, Mechanistic Studies, and Technological Innovations, Angew Chem Int Ed 50 (2011) 826–859. https://doi.org/10.1002/anie.201000235
[5] J.N. Coleman, M. Lotya, A. O’Neill, S.D. Bergin, P.J. King, U. Khan, K. Young, A. Gaucher, S. De, R.J. Smith, I.V. Shvets, S.K. Arora, G. Stanton, H.-Y. Kim, K. Lee, G.T. Kim, G.S. Duesberg, T. Hallam, J.J. Boland, J.J. Wang, J.F. Donegan, J.C. Grunlan, G. Moriarty, A. Shmeliov, R.J. Nicholls, J.M. Perkins, E.M. Grieveson, K. Theuwissen, D.W. McComb, P.D. Nellist, V. Nicolosi, Two-Dimensional Nanosheets Produced by Liquid Exfoliation of Layered Materials, Science 331 (2011) 568–571. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1194975
[6] M. Gao, J. Jiang, S. Yu, Solution‐Based Synthesis and Design of Late Transition Metal Chalcogenide Materials for Oxygen Reduction Reaction (ORR), Small 8 (2012) 13–27. https://doi.org/10.1002/smll.201101573
[7] M.H. Chung, B.R. Park, E.J. Choi, Y.J. Choi, C. Lee, J. Hong, H.U. Cho, J.H. Cho, J.W. Moon, Performance level criteria for semi-transparent photovoltaic windows based on dye-sensitized solar cells, Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells 217 (2020) 110683. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solmat.2020.110683
[8] A.B. Muñoz-García, I. Benesperi, G. Boschloo, J.J. Concepcion, J.H. Delcamp, E.A. Gibson, G.J. Meyer, M. Pavone, H. Pettersson, A. Hagfeldt, M. Freitag, Dye-sensitized solar cells strike back, Chem. Soc. Rev. 50 (2021) 12450–12550. https://doi.org/10.1039/D0CS01336F
[9] G. Richhariya, A. Kumar, P. Tekasakul, B. Gupta, Natural dyes for dye sensitized solar cell: A review, Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 69 (2017) 705–718. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2016.11.198
[10] S.N. Karthick, K.V. Hemalatha, Suresh Kannan Balasingam, F. Manik Clinton, S. Akshaya, H. Kim, Dye‐Sensitized Solar Cells: History, Components, Configuration, and Working Principle, in: A. Pandikumar, K. Jothivenkatachalam, K. Bhojanaa (Eds.), Interfacial Engineering in Functional Materials for Dye‐Sensitized Solar Cells, 1st ed., Wiley, 2019: pp. 1–16. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119557401.ch1
[11] P. Kulkarni, S.K. Nataraj, R.G. Balakrishna, D.H. Nagaraju, M.V. Reddy, Nanostructured binary and ternary metal sulfides: synthesis methods and their application in energy conversion and storage devices, J. Mater. Chem. A 5 (2017) 22040–22094. https://doi.org/10.1039/C7TA07329A
[12] H. Yuan, J. Liu, H. Li, Y. Li, X. Liu, D. Shi, Q. Wu, Q. Jiao, Graphitic carbon nitride quantum dot decorated three-dimensional graphene as an efficient metal-free electrocatalyst for triiodide reduction, J. Mater. Chem. A 6 (2018) 5603–5607. https://doi.org/10.1039/C8TA00205C
[13] M. Hosseinnezhad, S. Nasiri, M. Fathi, M. Ghahari, K. Gharanjig, Introduction of new configuration of dyes contain indigo group for dye-sensitized solar cells: DFT and photovoltaic study, Optical Materials 124 (2022) 111999. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.optmat.2022.111999
[14] J. Gong, K. Sumathy, Q. Qiao, Z. Zhou, Review on dye-sensitized solar cells (DSSCs): Advanced techniques and research trends, Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 68 (2017) 234–246. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2016.09.097
[15] A.N.B. Zulkifili, T. Kento, M. Daiki, A. Fujiki, The Basic Research on the Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells (DSSC), JOCET 3 (2015) 382–387. https://doi.org/10.7763/JOCET.2015.V3.228
[16] K. Wu, J. Ma, W. Cui, B. Ruan, M. Wu, The Impact of Metal Ion Doping on the Performance of Flexible Poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) (PEDOT) Cathode in Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells, Journal of Photochemistry and Photobiology A: Chemistry 340 (2017) 29–34. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jphotochem.2017.02.023
[17] F.C. Krebs, M. Hösel, M. Corazza, B. Roth, M.V. Madsen, S.A. Gevorgyan, R.R. Søndergaard, D. Karg, M. Jørgensen, Freely available OPV—The fast way to progress, Energy Tech 1 (2013) 378–381. https://doi.org/10.1002/ente.201300057
[18] Y. Wang, Recent research progress on polymer electrolytes for dye-sensitized solar cells, Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells 93 (2009) 1167–1175. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solmat.2009.01.009
[19] D. Wei, Dye Sensitized Solar Cells, IJMS 11 (2010) 1103–1113. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms11031103
[20] P.P. Kumavat, P. Sonar, D.S. Dalal, An overview on basics of organic and dye sensitized solar cells, their mechanism and recent improvements, Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 78 (2017) 1262–1287. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2017.05.011
[21] S.E. Sheela, R. Sekar, D.K. Maurya, M. Paulraj, S. Angaiah, Progress in transition metal chalcogenides-based counter electrode materials for dye-sensitized solar cells, Materials Science in Semiconductor Processing 156 (2023) 107273. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mssp.2022.107273
[22] S. Suhaimi, M.M. Shahimin, Z.A. Alahmed, J. Chyský, A.H. Reshak, Materials for Enhanced Dye-sensitized Solar Cell Performance: Electrochemical Application, International Journal of Electrochemical Science 10 (2015) 2859–2871. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1452-3981(23)06503-3
[23] D. Zhang, M. Stojanovic, Y. Ren, Y. Cao, F.T. Eickemeyer, E. Socie, N. Vlachopoulos, J.-E. Moser, S.M. Zakeeruddin, A. Hagfeldt, M. Grätzel, A molecular photosensitizer achieves a Voc of 1.24 V enabling highly efficient and stable dye-sensitized solar cells with copper(II/I)-based electrolyte, Nat Commun 12 (2021) 1777. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-021-21945-3
[24] M. Freitag, J. Teuscher, Y. Saygili, X. Zhang, F. Giordano, P. Liska, J. Hua, S.M. Zakeeruddin, J.-E. Moser, M. Grätzel, A. Hagfeldt, Dye-sensitized solar cells for efficient power generation under ambient lighting, Nature Photon 11 (2017) 372–378. https://doi.org/10.1038/nphoton.2017.60
[25] J. Gong, J. Liang, K. Sumathy, Review on dye-sensitized solar cells (DSSCs): Fundamental concepts and novel materials, Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 16 (2012) 5848–5860. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2012.04.044
[26] N. Huang, F. Zheng, J. Xu, H. Huang, G. Li, Z. Xia, P. Sun, X. Sun, Solution‐Based in–situ Synthesis of Transition Metal Sulfides as Efficient Counter Electrodes for Dye‐Sensitized Solar Cells, ChemistrySelect 1 (2016) 4613–4619. https://doi.org/10.1002/slct.201600903
[27] S. Wang, X. Wang, L. Yu, M. Sun, Progress and trends of photodynamic therapy: From traditional photosensitizers to AIE-based photosensitizers, Photodiagnosis and Photodynamic Therapy 34 (2021) 102254. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pdpdt.2021.102254
[28] A. Carella, F. Borbone, R. Centore, Research Progress on Photosensitizers for DSSC, Front. Chem. 6 (2018) 481. https://doi.org/10.3389/fchem.2018.00481
[29] K. Sharma, V. Sharma, S.S. Sharma, Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells: Fundamentals and Current Status, Nanoscale Res Lett 13 (2018) 381. https://doi.org/10.1186/s11671-018-2760-6
[30] L. Li, D.L. Jacobs, B.R. Bunes, H. Huang, X. Yang, L. Zang, Anomalous high photovoltages observed in shish kebab-like organic p–n junction nanostructures, Polym. Chem. 5 (2014) 309–313. https://doi.org/10.1039/C3PY01026K
[31] S. Aghazada, P. Gao, A. Yella, G. Marotta, T. Moehl, J. Teuscher, J.-E. Moser, F. De Angelis, M. Grätzel, M.K. Nazeeruddin, Ligand Engineering for the Efficient Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells with Ruthenium Sensitizers and Cobalt Electrolytes, Inorg. Chem. 55 (2016) 6653–6659. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.inorgchem.6b00842
[32] F. Gao, Y. Wang, D. Shi, J. Zhang, M. Wang, X. Jing, R. Humphry-Baker, P. Wang, S.M. Zakeeruddin, M. Grätzel, Enhance the Optical Absorptivity of Nanocrystalline TiO 2 Film with High Molar Extinction Coefficient Ruthenium Sensitizers for High Performance Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 130 (2008) 10720–10728. https://doi.org/10.1021/ja801942j
[33] M. Bavarian, S. Nejati, K.K.S. Lau, D. Lee, M. Soroush, Theoretical and Experimental Study of a Dye-Sensitized Solar Cell, Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 53 (2014) 5234–5247. https://doi.org/10.1021/ie4016914
[34] M.-E. Yeoh, K.-Y. Chan, Recent advances in photo-anode for dye-sensitized solar cells: a review: Recent advances in photo-anode for DSSCs: A review, Int J Energy Res 41 (2017) 2446–2467. https://doi.org/10.1002/er.3764
[35] S.H. Ahn, W.S. Chi, D.J. Kim, S.Y. Heo, J.H. Kim, Honeycomb‐Like Organized TiO 2 Photoanodes with Dual Pores for Solid‐State Dye‐Sensitized Solar Cells, Adv Funct Materials 23 (2013) 3901–3908. https://doi.org/10.1002/adfm.201203851
[36] J.-W. Choi, H. Kang, M. Lee, J.S. Kang, S. Kyeong, J.-K. Yang, J. Kim, D.H. Jeong, Y.-S. Lee, Y.-E. Sung, Plasmon-enhanced dye-sensitized solar cells using SiO2 spheres decorated with tightly assembled silver nanoparticles, RSC Adv. 4 (2014) 19851. https://doi.org/10.1039/c4ra00596a
[37] S. Anandan, Recent improvements and arising challenges in dye-sensitized solar cells, Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells 91 (2007) 843–846. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solmat.2006.11.017
[38] N.A. Ludin, A.M. Al-Alwani Mahmoud, A. Bakar Mohamad, Abd.A.H. Kadhum, K. Sopian, N.S. Abdul Karim, Review on the development of natural dye photosensitizer for dye-sensitized solar cells, Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 31 (2014) 386–396. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2013.12.001
[39] Z. Tang, J. Wu, M. Zheng, J. Huo, Z. Lan, A microporous platinum counter electrode used in dye-sensitized solar cells, Nano Energy 2 (2013) 622–627. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nanoen.2013.07.014
[40] M.A.M. Al-Alwani, A.B. Mohamad, N.A. Ludin, Abd.A.H. Kadhum, K. Sopian, Dye-sensitised solar cells: Development, structure, operation principles, electron kinetics, characterisation, synthesis materials and natural photosensitisers, Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 65 (2016) 183–213. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2016.06.045
[41] I. Benesperi, H. Michaels, M. Freitag, The researcher’s guide to solid-state dye-sensitized solar cells, J. Mater. Chem. C 6 (2018) 11903–11942. https://doi.org/10.1039/C8TC03542C
[42] M.Z. Iqbal, S.R. Ali, S. Khan, Progress in dye sensitized solar cell by incorporating natural photosensitizers, Solar Energy 181 (2019) 490–509. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solener.2019.02.023
[43] M. Freitag, G. Boschloo, The revival of dye-sensitized solar cells, Current Opinion in Electrochemistry 2 (2017) 111–119. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coelec.2017.03.011
[44] King-Chuen Lin, Chun-Li Chang, Photo-Induced Electron Transfer from Dye or Quantum Dot to TiO2 Nanoparticles at Single Molecule Level, INTECH Open Access Publisher, 2011
[45] F. Liu, J. Zhu, L. Hu, B. Zhang, J. Yao, Md.K. Nazeeruddin, M. Grätzel, S. Dai, Low-temperature, solution-deposited metal chalcogenide films as highly efficient counter electrodes for sensitized solar cells, J. Mater. Chem. A 3 (2015) 6315–6323. https://doi.org/10.1039/C5TA00028A
[46] L.-D. Zhao, S.-H. Lo, Y. Zhang, H. Sun, G. Tan, C. Uher, C. Wolverton, V.P. Dravid, M.G. Kanatzidis, Ultralow thermal conductivity and high thermoelectric figure of merit in SnSe crystals, Nature 508 (2014) 373–377. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature13184
[47] A.J. Jackson, D. Tiana, A. Walsh, A universal chemical potential for sulfur vapours, Chem. Sci. 7 (2016) 1082–1092. https://doi.org/10.1039/C5SC03088A
[48] S.K. Swami, N. Chaturvedi, A. Kumar, R. Kapoor, V. Dutta, J. Frey, T. Moehl, M. Grätzel, S. Mathew, M.K. Nazeeruddin, Investigation of electrodeposited cobalt sulphide counter electrodes and their application in next-generation dye sensitized solar cells featuring organic dyes and cobalt-based redox electrolytes, Journal of Power Sources 275 (2015) 80–89. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2014.11.003
[49] S.Y. Shajaripour Jaberi, A. Ghaffarinejad, Z. Khajehsaeidi, A. Sadeghi, The synthesis, properties, and potential applications of CoS2 as a transition metal dichalcogenide (TMD), International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 48 (2023) 15831–15878. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2023.01.056
[50] Z. Wang, C. Zhao, R. Gui, H. Jin, J. Xia, F. Zhang, Y. Xia, Synthetic methods and potential applications of transition metal dichalcogenide/graphene nanocomposites, Coordination Chemistry Reviews 326 (2016) 86–110. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ccr.2016.08.004
[51] X. Qian, H. Liu, Y. Huang, Z. Ren, Y. Yu, C. Xu, L. Hou, Co-Ni-MoSx yolk-shell nanospheres as superior Pt-free electrode catalysts for highly efficient dye-sensitized solar cells, Journal of Power Sources 412 (2019) 568–574. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2018.11.067
[52] Q. Han, Z. Hu, H. Wang, Y. Sun, J. Zhang, L. Gao, M. Wu, High performance metal sulfide counter electrodes for organic sulfide redox couple in dye-sensitized solar cells, Materials Today Energy 8 (2018) 1–7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mtener.2018.02.004
[53] F. Gong, H. Wang, X. Xu, G. Zhou, Z.-S. Wang, In Situ Growth of Co 0.85 Se and Ni 0.85 Se on Conductive Substrates as High-Performance Counter Electrodes for Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 134 (2012) 10953–10958. https://doi.org/10.1021/ja303034w
[54] Z. Jin, M. Zhang, M. Wang, C. Feng, Z.-S. Wang, Metal Selenides as Efficient Counter Electrodes for Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells, Acc. Chem. Res. 50 (2017) 895–904. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.accounts.6b00625
[55] G. Liu, M. Wang, H. Wang, R.E.A. Ardhi, H. Yu, D. Zou, J.K. Lee, Hierarchically structured photoanode with enhanced charge collection and light harvesting abilities for fiber-shaped dye-sensitized solar cells, Nano Energy 49 (2018) 95–102. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nanoen.2018.04.037
[56] L. Qiu, Q. Wu, Z. Yang, X. Sun, Y. Zhang, H. Peng, Freestanding Aligned Carbon Nanotube Array Grown on a Large‐Area Single‐Layered Graphene Sheet for Efficient Dye‐Sensitized Solar Cell, Small 11 (2015) 1150–1155. https://doi.org/10.1002/smll.201400703
[57] H. Hu, B. Dong, B. Chen, X. Gao, D. Zou, High performance fiber-shaped perovskite solar cells based on lead acetate precursor, Sustainable Energy Fuels 2 (2018) 79–84. https://doi.org/10.1039/C7SE00462A
[58] A. Ali, K. Shehzad, F. Ur-Rahman, S.M. Shah, M. Khurram, M. Mumtaz, R.U.R. Sagar, Flexible, Low Cost, and Platinum-Free Counter Electrode for Efficient Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells, ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 8 (2016) 25353–25360. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.6b08826
[59] D.P. Joseph, S. Ganesan, M. Kovendhan, S.A. Suthanthiraraj, P. Maruthamuthu, C. Venkateswaran, Fabrication of dye sensitized solar cell using Cr doped CuZnSe type chalcopyrite thin film, Physica Status Solidi (a) 208 (2011) 2215–2219. https://doi.org/10.1002/pssa.201026368
[60] Z. He, Y. Yang, J.-W. Liu, S.-H. Yu, Emerging tellurium nanostructures: controllable synthesis and their applications, Chem. Soc. Rev. 46 (2017) 2732–2753. https://doi.org/10.1039/C7CS00013H
[61] J. Guo, Y. Shi, Y. Chu, T. Ma, Highly efficient telluride electrocatalysts for use as Pt-free counter electrodes in dye-sensitized solar cells, Chem. Commun. 49 (2013) 10157. https://doi.org/10.1039/c3cc45698f
[62] K. Wan, F. Wu, Y. Dou, L. Fang, C. Mao, Enhance the performance of dye-sensitized solar cells by Bi2Te3 nanosheet/ZnO nanoparticle composite photoanode, Journal of Alloys and Compounds 680 (2016) 373–380. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jallcom.2016.04.124
[63] S. Hussain, S.A. Patil, D. Vikraman, N. Mengal, H. Liu, W. Song, K.-S. An, S.H. Jeong, H.-S. Kim, J. Jung, Large area growth of MoTe2 films as high performance counter electrodes for dye-sensitized solar cells, Sci Rep 8 (2018) 29. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-017-18067-6
[64] S. Hussain, S.A. Patil, D. Vikraman, I. Rabani, A.A. Arbab, S.H. Jeong, H.-S. Kim, H. Choi, J. Jung, Enhanced electrocatalytic properties in MoS2/MoTe2 hybrid heterostructures for dye-sensitized solar cells, Applied Surface Science 504 (2020) 144401. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apsusc.2019.144401
[65] J. Zhang, Z. Wang, X. Li, J. Yang, C. Song, Y. Li, J. Cheng, Q. Guan, B. Wang, Flexible Platinum-Free Fiber-Shaped Dye Sensitized Solar Cell with 10.28% Efficiency, ACS Appl. Energy Mater. 2 (2019) 2870–2877. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsaem.9b00207
[66] X. Wen, Z. Lu, X. Sun, Y. Xiang, Z. Chen, J. Shi, I. Bhat, G.-C. Wang, M. Washington, T.-M. Lu, Epitaxial CdTe Thin Films on Mica by Vapor Transport Deposition for Flexible Solar Cells, ACS Appl. Energy Mater. 3 (2020) 4589–4599. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsaem.0c00265
[67] J.A. Castillo-Robles, E. Rocha-Rangel, J.A. Ramírez-de-León, F.C. Caballero-Rico, E.N. Armendáriz-Mireles, Advances on Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells (DSSCs) Nanostructures and Natural Colorants: A Review, J. Compos. Sci. 5 (2021) 288. https://doi.org/10.3390/jcs5110288
[68] H. Yuan, L. Kong, T. Li, Q. Zhang, A review of transition metal chalcogenide/graphene nanocomposites for energy storage and conversion, Chinese Chemical Letters 28 (2017) 2180–2194. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cclet.2017.11.038
[69] S. Yun, A. Hagfeldt, T. Ma, Pt‐Free Counter Electrode for Dye‐Sensitized Solar Cells with High Efficiency, Advanced Materials 26 (2014) 6210–6237. https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.201402056
[70] M. Heydari Gharahcheshmeh, K.K. Gleason, Device Fabrication Based on Oxidative Chemical Vapor Deposition (oCVD) Synthesis of Conducting Polymers and Related Conjugated Organic Materials, Adv Materials Inter 6 (2019) 1801564. https://doi.org/10.1002/admi.201801564
[71] P.P. Sanap, S.P. Gupta, S.S. Kahandal, J.L. Gunjakar, C.D. Lokhande, B.R. Sankapal, Z. Said, R.N. Bulakhe, J. Man Kim, A.B. Bhalerao, Exploring vanadium-chalcogenides toward solar cell application: A review, Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry 129 (2024) 124–142. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jiec.2023.09.004
[72] M.C. Mathpal, P. Kumar, F.H. Aragón, M.A.G. Soler, H.C. Swart, Basic Concepts, Engineering, and Advances in Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells, in: S.K. Sharma, K. Ali (Eds.), Solar Cells, Springer International Publishing, Cham, 2020: pp. 185–233. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-36354-3_8
[73] H.S. Nalwa, Encyclopedia of nanoscience and nanotechnology, American scientific publishers, North Lewis Way (Calif.), 2004
[74] K.W. Shah, S.-X. Wang, Y. Zheng, J. Xu, Solution-Based Synthesis and Processing of Metal Chalcogenides for Thermoelectric Applications, Applied Sciences 9 (2019) 1511. https://doi.org/10.3390/app9071511
[75] W. Yao, S. Yu, Synthesis of Semiconducting Functional Materials in Solution: From II‐VI Semiconductor to Inorganic–Organic Hybrid Semiconductor Nanomaterials, Adv Funct Materials 18 (2008) 3357–3366. https://doi.org/10.1002/adfm.200800672
[76] Y.X. Gan, A.H. Jayatissa, Z. Yu, X. Chen, M. Li, Hydrothermal Synthesis of Nanomaterials, Journal of Nanomaterials 2020 (2020) 1–3. https://doi.org/10.1155/2020/8917013
[77] H. Yu, J. Pan, Y. Bai, X. Zong, X. Li, L. Wang, Hydrothermal Synthesis of a Crystalline Rutile TiO 2 Nanorod Based Network for Efficient Dye‐Sensitized Solar Cells, Chemistry A European J 19 (2013) 13569–13574. https://doi.org/10.1002/chem.201300999
[78] M. Andersson, L. Österlund, S. Ljungström, A. Palmqvist, Preparation of Nanosize Anatase and Rutile TiO2 by Hydrothermal Treatment of Microemulsions and Their Activity for Photocatalytic Wet Oxidation of Phenol, J. Phys. Chem. B 106 (2002) 10674–10679. https://doi.org/10.1021/jp025715y
[79] D. Jamwal, S.K. Mehta, Metal Telluride Nanomaterials: Facile Synthesis, Properties and Applications for Third Generation Devices., ChemistrySelect 4 (2019) 1943–1963. https://doi.org/10.1002/slct.201803680
[80] N. Chaudhary, M. Khanuja, Abid, S.S. Islam, Hydrothermal synthesis of MoS2 nanosheets for multiple wavelength optical sensing applications, Sensors and Actuators A: Physical 277 (2018) 190–198. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sna.2018.05.008
[81] M. Li, D. Wang, J. Li, Z. Pan, H. Ma, Y. Jiang, Z. Tian, Facile hydrothermal synthesis of MoS 2 nano-sheets with controllable structures and enhanced catalytic performance for anthracene hydrogenation, RSC Adv. 6 (2016) 71534–71542. https://doi.org/10.1039/C6RA16084K
[82] K. Byrappa, M. Yoshimura, Handbook of hydrothermal technology: a technology for crystal growth and materials processing, Noyes Publications, Norwich, N.Y, 2001
[83] J. Li, Q. Wu, J. Wu, Synthesis of Nanoparticles via Solvothermal and Hydrothermal Methods, in: M. Aliofkhazraei (Ed.), Handbook of Nanoparticles, Springer International Publishing, Cham, 2016: pp. 295–328. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-15338-4_17
[84] A. Kagkoura, T. Skaltsas, N. Tagmatarchis, Transition‐Metal Chalcogenide/Graphene Ensembles for Light‐Induced Energy Applications, Chemistry A European J 23 (2017) 12967–12979. https://doi.org/10.1002/chem.201700242
[85] M.-R. Gao, Y.-F. Xu, J. Jiang, S.-H. Yu, Nanostructured metal chalcogenides: synthesis, modification, and applications in energy conversion and storage devices, Chem. Soc. Rev. 42 (2013) 2986. https://doi.org/10.1039/c2cs35310e
[86] S.D. Henam, F. Ahmad, M.A. Shah, S. Parveen, A.H. Wani, Microwave synthesis of nanoparticles and their antifungal activities, Spectrochimica Acta Part A: Molecular and Biomolecular Spectroscopy 213 (2019) 337–341. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.saa.2019.01.071
[87] A.M. Schwenke, S. Hoeppener, U.S. Schubert, Synthesis and Modification of Carbon Nanomaterials utilizing Microwave Heating, Advanced Materials 27 (2015) 4113–4141. https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.201500472
[88] A. De La Hoz, A. Loupy, eds., Microwaves in Organic Synthesis, 1st ed., Wiley, 2012. https://doi.org/10.1002/9783527651313
[89] L.T. Gularte, C.D. Fernandes, M.L. Moreira, C.W. Raubach, P.L.G. Jardim, S.S. Cava, In situ microwave-assisted deposition of CoS counter electrode for dye-sensitized solar cells, Solar Energy 198 (2020) 658–664. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solener.2020.01.052
[90] D. Tonelli, E. Scavetta, I. Gualandi, Electrochemical Deposition of Nanomaterials for Electrochemical Sensing, Sensors 19 (2019) 1186. https://doi.org/10.3390/s19051186
[91] S. Domínguez-Domínguez, J. Arias-Pardilla, Á. Berenguer-Murcia, E. Morallón, D. Cazorla-Amorós, Electrochemical deposition of platinum nanoparticles on different carbon supports and conducting polymers, J Appl Electrochem 38 (2008) 259–268. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10800-007-9435-9
[92] X. Shi, Z.-G. Chen, W. Liu, L. Yang, M. Hong, R. Moshwan, L. Huang, J. Zou, Achieving high Figure of Merit in p-type polycrystalline Sn0.98Se via self-doping and anisotropy-strengthening, Energy Storage Materials 10 (2018) 130–138. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ensm.2017.08.014
[93] E.J. Menke, Q. Li, R.M. Penner, Bismuth Telluride (Bi 2 Te 3 ) Nanowires Synthesized by Cyclic Electrodeposition/Stripping Coupled with Step Edge Decoration, Nano Lett. 4 (2004) 2009–2014. https://doi.org/10.1021/nl048627t
[94] W.-L. Wang, C.-C. Wan, Y.-Y. Wang, Composition-dependent characterization and optimal control of electrodeposited Bi2Te3 films for thermoelectric application, Electrochimica Acta 52 (2007) 6502–6508. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electacta.2007.04.037
[95] L. Li, Y. Yang, X. Huang, G. Li, L. Zhang, Pulsed electrodeposition of single-crystalline Bi2Te3 nanowire arrays, Nanotechnology 17 (2006) 1706–1712. https://doi.org/10.1088/0957-4484/17/6/027
[96] X.-H. Li, B. Zhou, L. Pu, J.-J. Zhu, Electrodeposition of Bi2Te3 and Bi2Te3 Derived Alloy Nanotube Arrays, Crystal Growth & Design 8 (2008) 771–775. https://doi.org/10.1021/cg7006759
[97] M. Yang, Z. Shen, X. Liu, W. Wang, Electrodeposition and Thermoelectric Properties of Cu-Se Binary Compound Films, Journal of Elec Materi 45 (2016) 1974–1981. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11664-016-4344-5
[98] M. Biçer, İ. Şişman, Electrodeposition and growth mechanism of SnSe thin films, Applied Surface Science 257 (2011) 2944–2949. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apsusc.2010.10.096
[99] V.H.V. Quy, J.-H. Park, S.-H. Kang, H. Kim, K.-S. Ahn, Improved electrocatalytic activity of electrodeposited Ni3S4 counter electrodes for dye- and quantum dot-sensitized solar cells, Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry 70 (2019) 322–329. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jiec.2018.10.032
[100] J. Huo, M. Zheng, Y. Tu, J. Wu, L. Hu, S. Dai, A high performance cobalt sulfide counter electrode for dye-sensitized solar cells, Electrochimica Acta 159 (2015) 166–173. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electacta.2015.01.214
[101] K. Hachem, M.J. Ansari, R.O. Saleh, H.H. Kzar, M.E. Al-Gazally, U.S. Altimari, S.A. Hussein, H.T. Mohammed, A.T. Hammid, E. Kianfar, Methods of Chemical Synthesis in the Synthesis of Nanomaterial and Nanoparticles by the Chemical Deposition Method: A Review, BioNanoSci. 12 (2022) 1032–1057. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12668-022-00996-w
[102] I.R. S., X. Xu, W. Yang, F. Yang, L. Hou, Y. Li, Highly active and reflective MoS2 counter electrode for enhancement of photovoltaic efficiency of dye sensitized solar cells, Electrochimica Acta 212 (2016) 614–620. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electacta.2016.07.059
[103] A. Sharma, S. Masoumi, D. Gedefaw, S. O’Shaughnessy, D. Baran, A. Pakdel, Flexible solar and thermal energy conversion devices: Organic photovoltaics (OPVs), organic thermoelectric generators (OTEGs) and hybrid PV-TEG systems, Applied Materials Today 29 (2022) 101614. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apmt.2022.101614
[104] G. Cao, Nanostructures & nanomaterials: synthesis, properties & applications, Imperial College Press, London ; Hackensack, NJ, 2004
[105] Q. Wang, H. Wu, M. Qin, Z. Li, B. Jia, A. Chu, X. Qu, Study on influencing factors and mechanism of high-quality tungsten carbide nanopowders synthesized via carbothermal reduction, Journal of Alloys and Compounds 867 (2021) 158959. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jallcom.2021.158959
[106] S.M. George, Atomic Layer Deposition: An Overview, Chem. Rev. 110 (2010) 111–131. https://doi.org/10.1021/cr900056b
[107] M. Salavati-Niasari, M. Bazarganipour, F. Davar, A.A. Fazl, Simple routes to synthesis and characterization of nanosized tin telluride compounds, Applied Surface Science 257 (2010) 781–785. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apsusc.2010.07.065
[108] L. Zhang, Z. Ai, F. Jia, L. Liu, X. Hu, J.C. Yu, Controlled Hydrothermal Synthesis and Growth Mechanism of Various Nanostructured Films of Copper and Silver Tellurides, Chemistry A European J 12 (2006) 4185–4190. https://doi.org/10.1002/chem.200501404
[109] A. Paca, P. Ajibade, Synthesis, Optical, and Structural Studies of Iron Sulphide Nanoparticles and Iron Sulphide Hydroxyethyl Cellulose Nanocomposites from Bis-(Dithiocarbamato)Iron(II) Single-Source Precursors, Nanomaterials 8 (2018) 187. https://doi.org/10.3390/nano8040187
[110] Z.Y. Aydın, S. Abacı, Characterization of CuTe nanofilms grown by underpotential deposition based on an electrochemical codeposition technique, J Solid State Electrochem 21 (2017) 1417–1430. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10008-016-3496-9
[111] C.-L. Chen, Y.-Y. Chen, S.-J. Lin, J.C. Ho, P.-C. Lee, C.-D. Chen, S.R. Harutyunyan, Fabrication and Characterization of Electrodeposited Bismuth Telluride Films and Nanowires, J. Phys. Chem. C 114 (2010) 3385–3389. https://doi.org/10.1021/jp909926z
[112] K.O. Ighodalo, B.N. Ezealigo, A. Agbogu, A.C. Nwanya, D. Obi, S.L. Mammah, S. Botha, R. Bucher, M. Maaza, F.I. Ezema, The effect of deposition cycles on intrinsic and electrochemical properties of metallic cobalt sulfide by Simple chemical route, Materials Science in Semiconductor Processing 101 (2019) 16–27. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mssp.2019.05.015
[113] Q. Yao, Y. Zhu, L. Chen, Z. Sun, X. Chen, Microwave-assisted synthesis and characterization of Bi2Te3 nanosheets and nanotubes, Journal of Alloys and Compounds 481 (2009) 91–95. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jallcom.2009.03.001
[114] H. Rojas-Chávez, H. Cruz-Martínez, E. Flores-Rojas, J.M. Juárez-García, J.L. González-Domínguez, N. Daneu, J. Santoyo-Salazar, The mechanochemical synthesis of PbTe nanostructures: following the Ostwald ripening effect during milling, Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys. 20 (2018) 27082–27092. https://doi.org/10.1039/C8CP04915G
[115] F. Haque, T. Daeneke, K. Kalantar-zadeh, J.Z. Ou, Two-Dimensional Transition Metal Oxide and Chalcogenide-Based Photocatalysts, Nano-Micro Lett. 10 (2018) 23. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40820-017-0176-y
[116] Y. Xiao, C. Xiong, M.-M. Chen, S. Wang, L. Fu, X. Zhang, Structure modulation of two-dimensional transition metal chalcogenides: recent advances in methodology, mechanism and applications, Chem. Soc. Rev. 52 (2023) 1215–1272. https://doi.org/10.1039/D1CS01016F
[117] M. Dai, R. Wang, Synthesis and Applications of Nanostructured Hollow Transition Metal Chalcogenides, Small 17 (2021) 2006813. https://doi.org/10.1002/smll.202006813
[118] Q. Gao, W. Zhang, Z. Shi, L. Yang, Y. Tang, Structural Design and Electronic Modulation of Transition‐Metal‐Carbide Electrocatalysts toward Efficient Hydrogen Evolution, Advanced Materials 31 (2019) 1802880. https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.201802880
[119] X. Wang, A. Chen, X. Wu, J. Zhang, J. Dong, L. Zhang, Synthesis and Modulation of Low-Dimensional Transition Metal Chalcogenide Materials via Atomic Substitution, Nano-Micro Lett. 16 (2024) 163. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40820-024-01378-5
[120] Y. Guo, J. Li, MoS2 quantum dots: synthesis, properties and biological applications, Materials Science and Engineering: C 109 (2020) 110511. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msec.2019.110511
[121] E. Singh, K.S. Kim, G.Y. Yeom, H.S. Nalwa, Atomically Thin-Layered Molybdenum Disulfide (MoS2) for Bulk-Heterojunction Solar Cells, ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 9 (2017) 3223–3245. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.6b13582
[122] P. Acevedo-Peña, G. Vázquez, D. Laverde, J.E. Pedraza-Rosas, J. Manríquez, I. González, Electrochemical Characterization of TiO2 Films Formed by Cathodic EPD in Aqueous Media, J. Electrochem. Soc. 156 (2009) C377. https://doi.org/10.1149/1.3208009
[123] J. Li, L. Li, Y. Du, X. Liu, L. Wang, Carbon spheres decorated with SnS2 nanosheets as a low-cost counter-electrode material for dye-sensitized solar cell, Materials Letters 363 (2024) 136239. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matlet.2024.136239
[124] X. Wang, Y. Xie, B. Bateer, K. Pan, X. Zhang, J. Wu, H. Fu, CoSe 2 /N-Doped Carbon Hybrid Derived from ZIF-67 as High-Efficiency Counter Electrode for Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells, ACS Sustainable Chem. Eng. 7 (2019) 2784–2791. https://doi.org/10.1021/acssuschemeng.8b05995
[125] S. Hussain, K. Akbar, D. Vikraman, I. Rabani, W. Song, K.-S. An, H.-S. Kim, S.-H. Chun, J. Jung, Experimental and theoretical insights to demonstrate the hydrogen evolution activity of layered platinum dichalcogenides electrocatalysts, Journal of Materials Research and Technology 12 (2021) 385–398. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmrt.2021.02.097
[126] S. Rashidi, S. Rashidi, R.K. Heydari, S. Esmaeili, N. Tran, D. Thangi, W. Wei, WS 2 and MoS 2 counter electrode materials for dye‐sensitized solar cells, Progress in Photovoltaics 29 (2021) 238–261. https://doi.org/10.1002/pip.3350
[127] M.Z. Iqbal, S. Alam, M.M. Faisal, S. Khan, Recent advancement in the performance of solar cells by incorporating transition metal dichalcogenides as counter electrode and photoabsorber, Int J Energy Res 43 (2019) 3058–3079. https://doi.org/10.1002/er.4375
[128] V. Diez-Cabanes, S. Fantacci, M. Pastore, First-principles modeling of dye-sensitized solar cells: From the optical properties of standalone dyes to the charge separation at dye/TiO2 interfaces, in: Theoretical and Computational Photochemistry, Elsevier, 2023: pp. 215–245. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-323-91738-4.00013-0
[129] Electro-Materials Research Laboratory, Centre for Nanoscience and Technology, Pondicherry University, Puducherry-605014, India, R. Kottayi, Department of Physics, Kanchi Mamunivar Govt. Institute for PG Studies and Research, Puducherry-605008, India, D.K. Maurya, Electro-Materials Research Laboratory, Centre for Nanoscience and Technology, Pondicherry University, Puducherry-605014, India, R. Sittaramane, Department of Physics, Kanchi Mamunivar Govt. Institute for PG Studies and Research, Puducherry-605008, India, S. Angaiah, Electro-Materials Research Laboratory, Centre for Nanoscience and Technology, Pondicherry University, Puducherry-605014, India, Recent developments in Metal Chalcogenides based Quantum Dot Sensitized Solar Cells, ES Energy Environ. (2022). https://doi.org/10.30919/esee8c754
[130] M. Chhowalla, H.S. Shin, G. Eda, L.-J. Li, K.P. Loh, H. Zhang, The chemistry of two-dimensional layered transition metal dichalcogenide nanosheets, Nature Chem 5 (2013) 263–275. https://doi.org/10.1038/nchem.1589
[131] G. Eda, S.A. Maier, Two-Dimensional Crystals: Managing Light for Optoelectronics, ACS Nano 7 (2013) 5660–5665. https://doi.org/10.1021/nn403159y
[132] C. Tan, X. Cao, X.-J. Wu, Q. He, J. Yang, X. Zhang, J. Chen, W. Zhao, S. Han, G.-H. Nam, M. Sindoro, H. Zhang, Recent Advances in Ultrathin Two-Dimensional Nanomaterials, Chem. Rev. 117 (2017) 6225–6331. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.chemrev.6b00558
[133] H. Zhou, Q. Chen, G. Li, S. Luo, T. Song, H.-S. Duan, Z. Hong, J. You, Y. Liu, Y. Yang, Interface engineering of highly efficient perovskite solar cells, Science 345 (2014) 542–546. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1254050
[134] W. Zhang, Z. Huang, W. Zhang, Y. Li, Two-dimensional semiconductors with possible high room temperature mobility, Nano Res. 7 (2014) 1731–1737. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12274-014-0532-x
[135] P. Vijayakumar, M. Senthil Pandian, S.P. Lim, A. Pandikumar, N.M. Huang, S. Mukhopadhyay, P. Ramasamy, Investigations of tungsten carbide nanostructures treated with different temperatures as counter electrodes for dye sensitized solar cells (DSSC) applications, J Mater Sci: Mater Electron 26 (2015) 7977–7986. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10854-015-3452-y
[136] N. Yu, L. Wang, M. Li, X. Sun, T. Hou, Y. Li, Molybdenum disulfide as a highly efficient adsorbent for non-polar gases, Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys. 17 (2015) 11700–11704. https://doi.org/10.1039/C5CP00161G
[137] M. Grätzel, Dye-sensitized solar cells, Journal of Photochemistry and Photobiology C: Photochemistry Reviews 4 (2003) 145–153. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1389-5567(03)00026-1
[138] W. Wei, K. Sun, Y.H. Hu, An efficient counter electrode material for dye-sensitized solar cells—flower-structured 1T metallic phase MoS 2, J. Mater. Chem. A 4 (2016) 12398–12401. https://doi.org/10.1039/C6TA04743B
[139] E. Singh, K.S. Kim, G.Y. Yeom, H.S. Nalwa, Two-dimensional transition metal dichalcogenide-based counter electrodes for dye-sensitized solar cells, RSC Adv. 7 (2017) 28234–28290. https://doi.org/10.1039/C7RA03599C
[140] L. Su, Y. Xiao, G. Han, L. Lu, H. Li, M. Zhu, Performance enhancement of perovskite solar cells using trimesic acid additive in the two-step solution method, Journal of Power Sources 426 (2019) 11–15. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2019.04.024
[141] G. Zhuang, J. Yan, Y. Wen, Z. Zhuang, Y. Yu, Two‐Dimensional Transition Metal Oxides and Chalcogenides for Advanced Photocatalysis: Progress, Challenges, and Opportunities, Solar RRL 5 (2021) 2000403. https://doi.org/10.1002/solr.202000403
[142] N.N. Rosman, R. Mohamad Yunus, L. Jeffery Minggu, K. Arifin, M.N.I. Salehmin, M.A. Mohamed, M.B. Kassim, Photocatalytic properties of two-dimensional graphene and layered transition-metal dichalcogenides based photocatalyst for photoelectrochemical hydrogen generation: An overview, International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 43 (2018) 18925–18945. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2018.08.126
[143] Y.L. Huang, W. Chen, A.T.S. Wee, Two‐dimensional magnetic transition metal chalcogenides, Smart Mat 2 (2021) 139–153. https://doi.org/10.1002/smm2.1031
[144] W. Chen, Y. Qu, L. Yao, X. Hou, X. Shi, H. Pan, Electronic, magnetic, catalytic, and electrochemical properties of two-dimensional Janus transition metal chalcogenides, J. Mater. Chem. A 6 (2018) 8021–8029. https://doi.org/10.1039/C8TA01202D
[145] Q. Chen, Q. Ding, Y. Wang, Y. Xu, J. Wang, Electronic and Magnetic Properties of a Two-Dimensional Transition Metal Phosphorous Chalcogenide TMPS 4, J. Phys. Chem. C 124 (2020) 12075–12080. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.jpcc.0c02432
[146] J.-F. Yang, B. Parakash, J. Hardell, Q.-F. Fang, Tribological properties of transition metal di-chalcogenide based lubricant coatings, Front. Mater. Sci. 6 (2012) 116–127. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11706-012-0155-7
[147] D. Voiry, A. Mohite, M. Chhowalla, Phase engineering of transition metal dichalcogenides, Chem. Soc. Rev. 44 (2015) 2702–2712. https://doi.org/10.1039/C5CS00151J
[148] F. Özel, A. Sarılmaz, B. İstanbullu, A. Aljabour, M. Kuş, S. Sönmezoğlu, Penternary chalcogenides nanocrystals as catalytic materials for efficient counter electrodes in dye-synthesized solar cells, Sci Rep 6 (2016) 29207. https://doi.org/10.1038/srep29207
[149] U. Ahmed, M. Alizadeh, N.A. Rahim, S. Shahabuddin, M.S. Ahmed, A.K. Pandey, A comprehensive review on counter electrodes for dye sensitized solar cells: A special focus on Pt-TCO free counter electrodes, Solar Energy 174 (2018) 1097–1125. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solener.2018.10.010
[150] S.-H. Chang, M.-D. Lu, Y.-L. Tung, H.-Y. Tuan, Gram-Scale Synthesis of Catalytic Co9S8 Nanocrystal Ink as a Cathode Material for Spray-Deposited, Large-Area Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells, ACS Nano 7 (2013) 9443–9451. https://doi.org/10.1021/nn404272j
[151] J. Theerthagiri, R.A. Senthil, K. Susmitha, M. Raghavender, J. Madhavan, Synthesis of Efficient Ni0.9X0.1Se2 (X=Cd, Co, Sn and Zn) Based Ternary Selenides for Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells, MSF 832 (2015) 61–71. https://doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/MSF.832.61
[152] Y. Zeng, S. Zhang, X. Li, J. Ao, Y. Sun, W. Liu, F. Liu, P. Gao, Y. Zhang, Two-step growth of VSe 2 films and their photoelectric properties*, Chinese Phys. B 28 (2019) 058101. https://doi.org/10.1088/1674-1056/28/5/058101
[153] X. Liu, G. Yue, H. Zheng, A promising vanadium sulfide counter electrode for efficient dye-sensitized solar cells, RSC Adv. 7 (2017) 12474–12478. https://doi.org/10.1039/C6RA28667D
[154] X. Sun, J. Dou, F. Xie, Y. Li, M. Wei, One-step preparation of mirror-like NiS nanosheets on ITO for the efficient counter electrode of dye-sensitized solar cells, Chem. Commun. 50 (2014) 9869. https://doi.org/10.1039/C4CC03798G
[155] N. Mahuli, S.K. Sarkar, Atomic layer deposition of NiS and its application as cathode material in dye sensitized solar cell, Journal of Vacuum Science & Technology A: Vacuum, Surfaces, and Films 34 (2016) 01A142. https://doi.org/10.1116/1.4938078