Restoration of the Kasbah of Boulaouane: An innovative approach using eco-friendly geopolymer and biopolymer composite materials
MASROUR Ilham, BABA Khadija, KHLIFATI Oumaima, SIMOU Sana, EL HARROUNI Rime, NOUNAH Abderrahman, EL HARROUNI Khalid
Abstract. The Kasbah of Boulaouane, a magnificent 18th-century fortress near El Jadida, Morocco, faces a critical challenge. Built by Sultan Moulay Ismaïl, this historical monument is suffering from cracks and instability due to weathering and neglect. The traditional rammed earth walls, once a symbol of resilience, are now threatened. This study proposes a groundbreaking and ecological solution for the Kasbah’s restoration: a composite material combining geopolymer and biopolymer. Geopolymers, formed from eco-friendly alkaline solutions and pozzolans, offer exceptional strength, while biopolymers, derived from fermented wheat straw, provide additional reinforcement. Our research demonstrates that this innovative combination significantly increases the flexural and compressive strength of rammed earth. By incorporating these modern, sustainable materials with time-tested techniques, we can not only restore the Kasbah of Boulaouane to its former glory but also ensure its longevity for future generations. This method has the potential to revolutionize the preservation of rammed earth structures worldwide, safeguarding our cultural heritage for years to come.
Keywords
Rammed Earth, Sustainable Construction, Geopolymer, Biopolymer, Mechanical Properties, Cultural Heritage Preservation, Earthen Architecture, Bio-Reinforcement
Published online 1/10/2025, 8 pages
Copyright © 2025 by the author(s)
Published under license by Materials Research Forum LLC., Millersville PA, USA
Citation: MASROUR Ilham, BABA Khadija, KHLIFATI Oumaima, SIMOU Sana, EL HARROUNI Rime, NOUNAH Abderrahman, EL HARROUNI Khalid, Restoration of the Kasbah of Boulaouane: An innovative approach using eco-friendly geopolymer and biopolymer composite materials, Materials Research Proceedings, Vol. 47, pp 180-187, 2025
DOI: https://doi.org/10.21741/9781644903391-21
The article was published as article 21 of the book Vernacular Architecture
Content from this work may be used under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 license. Any further distribution of this work must maintain attribution to the author(s) and the title of the work, journal citation and DOI.
References
[1] Almutairi, A.L., Tayeh, B.A., Adesina, A., Isleem, H.F. and Zeyad, A.M. 2021. Potential applications of geopolymer concrete in construction: A review. Case Studies in Construction Materials. 15, (Dec. 2021), e00733. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cscm.2021.e00733
[2] Ascensão, G., Seabra, M.P., Aguiar, J.B. and Labrincha, J.A. 2017. Red mud-based geopolymers with tailored alkali diffusion properties and pH buffering ability. Journal of Cleaner Production. 148, (Apr. 2017), 23–30. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2017.01.150
[3] Ayeni, O., Onwualu, A.P. and Boakye, E. 2021. Characterization and mechanical performance of metakaolin-based geopolymer for sustainable building applications. Construction and Building Materials. 272, (Feb. 2021), 121938. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2020.121938
[4] Bai, C., Li, H., Bernardo, E. and Colombo, P. 2019. Waste-to-resource preparation of glass-containing foams from geopolymers. Ceramics International. 45, 6 (Apr. 2019), 7196–7202. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ceramint.2018.12.227
[5] Bai, C., Zheng, K., Sun, F., Wang, X., Zhang, L., Zheng, T., Colombo, P. and Wang, B. 2024. A review on metakaolin-based porous geopolymers. Applied Clay Science. 258, (Sep. 2024), 107490. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clay.2024.107490
[6] Bajare, D., Bumanis, G. and Korjakins, A. 2014. New Porous Material Made from Industrial and Municipal Waste for Building Application. Materials Science. 20, 3 (Sep. 2014), 333–338. https://doi.org/10.5755/j01.ms.20.3.4330
[7] Bourzik, O., Baba, K. and Akkouri, N. 2023. Eco-friendly geopolymer mortar prepared from geopolymer waste: Mechanical and thermal properties. Environmental Quality Management. (2023). https://doi.org/10.1002/tqem.22132
[8] Chen, L., Wang, Z., Wang, Y. and Feng, J. 2016. Preparation and Properties of Alkali Activated Metakaolin-Based Geopolymer. Materials. 9, 9 (Sep. 2016), 767. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma9090767
[9] Costs and carbon emissions for geopolymer pastes in comparison to ordinary portland cement – ScienceDirect: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0959652611000680?via%3Dihub. Accessed: 2024-09-27.
[10] Davidovits, J. 2008. Geopolymer Chemistry & Applications. Institut géopolymère.
[11] Hanani Ismail, A., Kusbiantoro, A., Tajunnisa, Y., Jaya Ekaputri, J. and Laory, I. 2024. A review of aluminosilicate sources from inorganic waste for geopolymer production: Sustainable approach for hydrocarbon waste disposal. Cleaner Materials. 13, (Sep. 2024), 100259. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clema.2024.100259
[12] Li, X., Liu, L., Bai, C., Yang, K., Zheng, T., Lu, S., Li, H., Qiao, Y. and Colombo, P. 2023. Porous alkali-activated material from hypergolic coal gangue by microwave foaming for methylene blue removal. Journal of the American Ceramic Society. 106, 2 (2023), 1473–1489. https://doi.org/10.1111/jace.18812
[13] M., C., Errami, E., Ennih, N., N., G., Zitoune, I., Enniouar, A., A., C. and A., E. 2011. Valorisation du Géosite delLa Kasbah de Boulaouane (Province d’El Jadida, Maroc).
[14] Masrour, I., Baba, K. and Doughmi, K. 2024. Geopolymers: An Eco-Friendly Approach to Enhancing the Stability of Earthen Constructions. Materials Research Proceedings. 40, (2024), 388. https://doi.org/10.21741/9781644903117
[15] Masrour, I., Baba, K. and Simou, S. 2024. Naturally Strengthening Rammed Earth: The Promising Potential of Biopolymers. Materials Research Proceedings. 40, (2024), 388. https://doi.org/10.21741/9781644903117
[16] Nawaz, M., Heitor, A. and Sivakumar, M. 2020. Geopolymers in construction – recent developments. Construction and Building Materials. 260, (Nov. 2020), 120472. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2020.120472
[17] Ng, C., Alengaram, U.J., Wong, L.S., Mo, K.H., Jumaat, M.Z. and Ramesh, S. 2018. A review on microstructural study and compressive strength of geopolymer mortar, paste and concrete. Construction and Building Materials. 186, (Oct. 2018), 550–576. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2018.07.075
[18] Panagiotopoulou, Ch., Kontori, E., Perraki, Th. and Kakali, G. 2007. Dissolution of aluminosilicate minerals and by-products in alkaline media. Journal of Materials Science. 42, 9 (May 2007), 2967–2973. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10853-006-0531-8
[19] Parathi, S., Nagarajan, P. and Pallikkara, S.A. 2021. Ecofriendly geopolymer concrete: a comprehensive review. Clean Technologies and Environmental Policy. 23, 6 (Aug. 2021), 1701–1713. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10098-021-02085-0
[20] Qninba, A., Rihane, A., Bousadik, H. and Agbani, M.A.E. 2020. La colonie mixte de Faucons crécerelles et crécerellettes (Falco tinnunculus – F. naumanni) de la Kasbah de Boulaouane (Centre Atlantique marocain). (2020).
[21] R.A. Sá Ribeiro 2017. A Review of Particle- and Fiber-Reinforced Metakaolin-Based Geopolymer Composites. 03 (2017). https://doi.org/10.4416/JCST2017-00048
[22] Simou, S., Baba, K., Akkouri, N., Lamrani, M., Tajayout, M. and Nounah, A. 2020. Mechanical Characterization of the Adobe Material of the Archaeological Site of Chellah. Sustainable Civil Infrastructures. (2020), 118–130. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-34199-2_8
[23] Simou, S., Baba, K., Tajayouti, M., Jemmal, M., Nounah, A. and Aarab, A. 2020. 3d reconstruction of the Marinids site located at the Chellah archaeological area. (2020), 2807–2814.
[24] Singh, N.B. and Middendorf, B. 2020. Geopolymers as an alternative to Portland cement: An overview. Construction and Building Materials. 237, (Mar. 2020), 117455. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2019.117455
[25] Tungsten mine waste geopolymeric binder: Preliminary hydration products investigations – ScienceDirect: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0950061808000123. Accessed: 2024-09-27.
[26] Xie, T., Visintin, P., Zhao, X. and Gravina, R. 2020. Mix design and mechanical properties of geopolymer and alkali activated concrete: Review of the state-of-the-art and the development of a new unified approach. Construction and Building Materials. 256, (Sep. 2020), 119380. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2020.119380
[27] Yuan, Q., Huang, Y., Huang, T., Yao, H. and Wu, Q. 2022. Effect of activator on rheological properties of alkali-activated slag-fly ash pastes. Journal of Central South University. 29, 1 (Jan. 2022), 282–295. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11771-022-4913-0
