Rational Design and Development of Copper Zinc Tin Sulfide Solar Cells

$30.00

Rational Design and Development of Copper Zinc Tin Sulfide Solar Cells

K.S. Rajni, Narayanan V. Vishnu

The future depends on sustainable energy resources; solar energy is Earth’s most readily available energy source. To convert this massive energy source into electrical energy, we need to develop better photovoltaic technologies that are energy efficient and sustainable. Among the various photovoltaic technologies, the CZTS thin film solar cells are one of the safest absorber materials developed till now. Currently, the practical efficiency of CZTS needs to catch up to the theoretical efficiency and to reduce this gap, the materials used require fine-tuning. In this regard through this book chapter, we are trying to identify the motive behind the design and development of CZTS thin film solar cells and the future scope for quaternary chalcogenide solar cell.

Keywords
Cu2ZnSnS4, Thin Film Solar Cells, Chalcogenides, Solar Energy

Published online 3/25/2024, 26 pages
Copyright © 2024 by the author(s)
Published under license by Materials Research Forum LLC., Millersville PA, USA

Citation: K.S. Rajni, Narayanan V. Vishnu, Rational Design and Development of Copper Zinc Tin Sulfide Solar Cells, Materials Research Foundations, Vol. 163, pp 92-117, 2024

DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.21741/9781644903032-4

The article was published as article 4 of the book Third Generation Photovoltaic Technology

References
[1] Imamzai, Mohammadnoor, et al. “A review on comparison between traditional silicon solar cells and thin-film CdTe solar cells.” Proceedings of National Graduate Conference (Nat-Grad. 2012.
[2] Radziemska, Ewa. “Thermal performance of Si and GaAs based solar cells and modules: a review.” Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 29.5 (2003): 407-424. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0360-1285(03)00032-7
[3] Raguram, T., and K. S. Rajni. “Synthesis and characterisation of Cu-doped TiO2 nanoparticles for DSSC and photocatalytic applications.” International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 47.7 (2022): 4674-4689. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2021.11.113
[4] Nozik, Arthur J. “Quantum dot solar cells.” Physica E: Low-dimensional Systems and Nanostructures 14.1-2 (2002): 115-120. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1386-9477(02)00374-0
[5] Kim, Jin Young, et al. “High-efficiency perovskite solar cells.” Chemical Reviews 120.15 (2020): 7867-7918. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.chemrev.0c00107
[6] Peksu, Elif, and Hakan Karaagac. “Characterization of Cu2ZnSnS4 thin films deposited by one- step thermal evaporation for a third generation solar cell.” Journal of Alloys and Compounds 862 (2021): 158503. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jallcom.2020.158503
[7] Jhuma, Farjana Akter, Marshia Zaman Shaily, and Mohammad Junaebur Rashid. “Towards high- efficiency CZTS solar cell through buffer layer optimization.” Materials for Renewable and Sustainable Energy 8 (2019): 1-7. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40243-019-0144-1
[8] Giraldo, Sergio, et al. “Large efficiency improvement in Cu2ZnSnSe4 solar cells by introducing a superficial Ge nanolayer.” Advanced Energy Materials 5.21 (2015): 1501070. https://doi.org/10.1002/aenm.201501070
[9] Fan, Ping, et al. “Over 10% Efficient Cu2CdSnS4 Solar Cells Fabricated from Optimized Sulfurization.” Advanced Functional Materials 32.45 (2022): 2207470. https://doi.org/10.1002/adfm.202207470
[10] Basu, Ranita, et al. “Improving the Thermoelectric Performance of Tetrahedrally Bonded Quaternary Selenide Cu 2 CdSnSe 4 Using CdSe Precipitates.” Journal of Electronic Materials 48 (2019): 2120-2130. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11664-019-07012-0
[11] Macías-Cabrera, C. A., et al. “Synthesis of CZTS thin films from binary precursors stacking by chemical bath deposition for solar cell applications.” Materials Today: Proceedings 46 (2021): 3109-3113. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2021.02.624
[12] Sharmin, Afrina, et al. “Sputtered single-phase kesterite Cu2ZnSnS4 (CZTS) thin film for photovoltaic applications: Post annealing parameter optimization and property analysis.” AIP Advances 10.1 (2020): 015230. https://doi.org/10.1063/1.5129202
[13] Krishnan, Ambily, et al. “Towards phase pure CZTS thin films by SILAR method with augmented Zn adsorption for photovoltaic applications.” Materials for Renewable and Sustainable Energy 8 (2019): 1-8. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40243-019-0152-1
[14] Ashfaq, Arslan, et al. “A two step technique to remove the secondary phases in CZTS thin films grown by sol-gel method.” Ceramics International 45.8 (2019): 10876-10881. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ceramint.2019.02.165
[15] Ahmoum, H., et al. “Impact of preheating environment on microstructural and optoelectronic properties of Cu2ZnSnS4 (CZTS) thin films deposited by spin-coating.” Superlattices and Microstructures 140 (2020): 106452. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.spmi.2020.106452
[16] Prabeesh, P., et al. “Influence of thiourea in the precursor solution on the structural, optical and electrical properties of CZTS thin films deposited via spray coating technique.” Journal of Materials Science: Materials in Electronics 32 (2021): 4146-4156. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10854-020-05156-y
[17] Sawant, Jitendra P., and Rohidas B. Kale. “CZTS counter electrode in dye-sensitized solar cell: enhancement in photo conversion efficiency with morphology of TiO 2 nanostructured thin films.” Journal of Solid State Electrochemistry 24 (2020): 461-472. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10008-019-04452-w
[18] Mkawi, E. M., et al. “Fabricating chalcogenide Cu2ZnSnS4 (CZTS) nanoparticles via solvothermal synthesis: Effect of the sulfur source on the properties.” Ceramics International 46.16 (2020): 24916-24922. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ceramint.2020.06.276
[19] Elhmaidi, Z. O., et al. “In-situ tuning of the zinc content of pulsed-laser-deposited CZTS films and its effect on the photoconversion efficiency of p-CZTS/n-Si heterojunction photovoltaic devices.” Applied Surface Science 507 (2020): 145003. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apsusc.2019.145003
[20] Borate, Haribhau, et al. “Single-step electrochemical deposition of CZTS thin films with enhanced photoactivity.” ES Materials & Manufacturing 11 (2020): 30-39.
[21] Yussuf, Sodiq Tolulope, et al. “PHOTOVOLTAIC EFFICIENCIES OF MICROWAVE AND Cu2ZnSnS4 (CZTS) SUPERSTRATE SOLAR CELLS.” Materials Today Sustainability (2022): 100287. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mtsust.2022.100287
[22] Kumar, Mukesh, and Clas Persson. “Cu2ZnSnS4 and Cu2ZnSnSe4 as potential earth-abundant thin-film absorber materials: a density functional theory study.” Int. J. Theor. Appl. Sci 5.1 (2013): 1-8. https://doi.org/10.1063/1.4812448
[23] Kattan, Nessrin, et al. “Crystal structure and defects visualization of Cu2ZnSnS4 nanoparticles employing transmission electron microscopy and electron diffraction.” Applied Materials Today (2015): 52-59. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apmt.2015.08.004
[24] Khare, Ankur, et al. “Calculation of the lattice dynamics and Raman spectra of copper zinc tin chalcogenides and comparison to experiments.” Journal of Applied Physics 111.8 (2012): 083707. https://doi.org/10.1063/1.4704191
[25] Schorr, S. J. T. S. F. “Structural aspects of adamantine like multinary chalcogenides.” Thin Solid Films 515.15 (2007): 5985-5991. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tsf.2006.12.100
[26] Khelfane, Amar, et al. “Composition dependence of the optical band gap and the secondary phases via zinc content in CZTS material.” Inorganic Chemistry Communications (2023): 110639. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.inoche.2023.110639
[27] Rakitin, Vladimir V., and Gennady F. Novikov. “Third-generation solar cells based on quaternary copper compounds with the kesterite-type structure.” Russian Chemical Reviews 86.2 (2017): 99. https://doi.org/10.1070/RCR4633
[28] Satale, Vinayak Vitthal, and S. Venkataprasad Bhat. “Superstrate type CZTS solar cell with all solution processed functional layers at low temperature.” Solar Energy 208 (2020): 220-226. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solener.2020.07.055
[29] Rand, Barry P., et al. “Solar cells utilizing small molecular weight organic semiconductors.” Progress in Photovoltaics: Research and Applications 15.8 (2007): 659-676. https://doi.org/10.1002/pip.788
[30] Ghediya, Prashant R., and Tapas K. Chaudhuri. “Doctor-blade printing of Cu 2 ZnSnS 4 films from microwave-processed ink.” Journal of Materials Science: Materials in Electronics 26 (2015): 1908- 1912. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10854-014-2628-1
[31] Gong, Yuancai, et al. “Elemental de-mixing-induced epitaxial kesterite/CdS interface enabling 13%-efficiency kesterite solar cells.” Nature Energy 7.10 (2022): 966-977. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41560-022-01132-4
[32] Karzazi, Yasser, and Imane Arbouch. “Inorganic photovoltaic cells: Operating principles, technologies and efficiencies-Review.” J. Mater. Environ. Sci 5 (2014): 1505-1515.
[33] Das, Sandip. Growth, fabrication and characterization of Cu 2 ZnSn (S x Se 1-x) 4 photovoltaic absorber and thin-film heterojunction solar cells. Diss. University of South Carolina, 2014.S
[34] Nakayama, Norio, and Kentaro Ito. “Sprayed films of stannite Cu2ZnSnS4.” Applied Surface Science 92 (1996): 171-175. https://doi.org/10.1016/0169-4332(95)00225-1
[35] Kamoun, N., H. Bouzouita, and B. J. T. S. F. Rezig. “Fabrication and characterization of Cu2ZnSnS4 thin films deposited by spray pyrolysis technique.” Thin Solid Films 515.15 (2007): 5949-5952. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tsf.2006.12.144
[36] Das, Sandip, et al. “Deposition and characterization of low-cost spray pyrolyzed Cu2ZnSnS4 (CZTS) thin-films for large-area high-efficiency heterojunction solar cells.” ECS Transactions 45.7 (2012): 153. https://doi.org/10.1149/1.3701535
[37] Nguyen, Thi Hiep, et al. “Structural and solar cell properties of a Ag-containing Cu2ZnSnS4 thin film derived from spray pyrolysis.” ACS applied materials & interfaces 10.6 (2018): 5455-5463. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.7b14929
[38] Lie, Stener, et al. “Improving carrier-transport properties of CZTS by Mg incorporation with spray pyrolysis.” ACS applied materials & interfaces 11.29 (2019): 25824-25832. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.9b05244
[39] Kumar, YB Kishore, et al. “Effect of starting‐solution pH on the growth of Cu2ZnSnS4 thin films deposited by spray pyrolysis.” Physica status solidi (a) 206.7 (2009): 1525-1530. https://doi.org/10.1002/pssa.200824424
[40] Gunavathy, K. V., et al. “Effect of solvent on the characteristic properties of nebulizer spray pyrolyzed Cu2ZnSnS4 absorber thin films for photovoltaic application.” Thin Solid Films 697 (2020): 137841. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tsf.2020.137841
[41] Bakr, Nabeel A., Ziad T. Khodair, and S. M. Hassan. “Effect of substrate temperature on structural and optical properties of Cu2ZnSnS4 (CZTS) films prepared by chemical spray pyrolysis method.” Research Journal of Chemical Sciences ISSN 2231 (2015): 606X.
[42] Seboui, Zeineb, et al. “Effect of annealing process on the properties of Cu2ZnSnS4 thin films.” Superlattices and Microstructures 75 (2014): 586-592. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.spmi.2014.07.025
[43] Kamoun, N., H. Bouzouita, and B. J. T. S. F. Rezig. “Fabrication and characterization of Cu2ZnSnS4 thin films deposited by spray pyrolysis technique.” Thin Solid Films 515.15 (2007): 5949-5952. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tsf.2006.12.144
[44] Rajeshmon, V. G., et al. “Effect of copper concentration and spray rate on the properties Cu2ZnSnS4 thin films deposited using spray pyrolysis.” Journal of Analytical and Applied Pyrolysis 110 (2014): 448-454. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaap.2014.10.014
[45] Boutebakh, F. Z., et al. “Zinc molarity effect on Cu 2 ZnSnS 4 thin film properties prepared by spray pyrolysis.” Journal of Materials Science: Materials in Electronics 29 (2018): 4089-4095. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10854-017-8353-9
[46] Thiruvenkadam, S., et al. “Effect of Zn/Sn molar ratio on the microstructural and optical properties of Cu2Zn1-xSnxS4 thin films prepared by spray pyrolysis technique.” Physica B: Condensed Matter 533 (2018): 22-27. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.physb.2017.12.065
[47] Sampath, M., et al. “Structural, optical and photocatalytic properties of spray deposited Cu2ZnSnS4 thin films with various S/(Cu+ Zn+ Sn) ratio.” Materials Science in Semiconductor Processing 87 (2018): 54-64. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mssp.2018.07.001
[48] Agawane, G. L., et al. “Synthesis of simple, low cost and benign sol-gel Cu 2 ZnSnS 4 thin films: influence of different annealing atmospheres.” Journal of materials science: Materials in electronics 26 (2015): 1900-1907. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10854-014-2627-2
[49] Song, Xiangbo, et al. “A review on development prospect of CZTS based thin film solar cells.” International Journal of Photoenergy 2014 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1155/2014/613173
[50] Tanaka, Kunihiko, Noriko Moritake, and Hisao Uchiki. “Preparation of Cu2ZnSnS4 thin films by sulfurizing sol-gel deposited precursors.” Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells 91.13 (2007): 1199-1201. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solmat.2007.04.012
[51] Tanaka, Kunihiko, et al. “Pre-annealing of precursors of Cu2ZnSnS4 thin films prepared by sol- gel sulfurizing method.” Japanese journal of applied physics 47.1S (2008): 598. https://doi.org/10.1143/JJAP.47.598
[52] Tanaka, Kunihiko, et al. “Cu2ZnSnS4 thin film solar cells prepared by non-vacuum processing.” Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells 93.5 (2009): 583-587. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solmat.2008.12.009
[53] Ghosh, Anima, Rajalingam Thangavel, and Arunava Gupta. “Solution-processed Cd free kesterite Cu2ZnSnS4 thin film solar cells with vertically aligned ZnO nanorod arrays.” Journal of alloys and Compounds 694 (2017): 394-400. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jallcom.2016.09.325
[54] Barkhouse, D. Aaron R., et al. “Device characteristics of a 10.1% hydrazine‐processed Cu2ZnSn (Se, S) 4 solar cell.” Progress in Photovoltaics: Research and Applications 20.1 (2012): 6-11. https://doi.org/10.1002/pip.1160
[55] Wang, Wei, et al. “Device characteristics of CZTSSe thin‐film solar cells with 12.6% efficiency.” Advanced energy materials 4.7 (2014): 1301465. https://doi.org/10.1002/aenm.201301465
[56] Camara, Sekou Mariama, Lingling Wang, and Xintong Zhang. “Easy hydrothermal preparation of Cu2ZnSnS4 (CZTS) nanoparticles for solar cell application.” Nanotechnology 24.49 (2013): 495401. https://doi.org/10.1088/0957-4484/24/49/495401
[57] Patil, Satish S., et al. “Facile designing and assessment of photovoltaic performance of hydrothermally grown kesterite Cu2ZnSnS4 thin films: influence of deposition time.” Solar Energy 201 (2020): 102-115. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solener.2020.02.089
[58] Wei, Aixiang, et al. “Solvothermal synthesis of Cu2ZnSnS4 nanocrystalline thin films for application of solar cells.” International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 40.1 (2015): 797-805. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2014.09.047
[59] Madiraju, Venkata Alekhya, et al. “CZTS synthesis in aqueous media by microwave irradiation.” Journal of Materials Science: Materials in Electronics 27 (2016): 3152-3157. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10854-015-4137-2
[60] Morey, George W., and Paul Niggli. “The hydrothermal formation of silicates, a review.” Journal of the American Chemical Society 35.9 (1913): 1086-1130. https://doi.org/10.1021/ja02198a600
[61] Yoshimura, Masahiro, and Hiroyuki Suda. “Hydrothermal processing of hydroxyapatite: past, present, and future.” Hydroxyapatite and related materials. CRC Press, 2017. 45-72. https://doi.org/10.1201/9780203751367-3
[62] Chin, Clare Davis-Wheeler, LaRico J. Treadwell, and John B. Wiley. “Microwave synthetic routes for shape-controlled catalyst nanoparticles and nanocomposites.” Molecules 26.12 (2021): 3647. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules26123647
[63] Wang, Chunrui, et al. “Synthesis of Cu2ZnSnS4 nanocrystallines by a hydrothermal route.” Japanese Journal of Applied Physics 50.6R (2011): 065003. https://doi.org/10.1143/JJAP.50.065003
[64] Li, Mei, et al. “Synthesis of pure metastable wurtzite CZTS nanocrystals by facile one-pot method.” The Journal of Physical Chemistry C 116.50 (2012): 26507-26516. https://doi.org/10.1021/jp307346k
[65] Das, S., et al. “Synthesis of quaternary chalcogenide CZTS nanoparticles by a hydrothermal route.” IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering. Vol. 338. No. 1. IOP Publishing, 2018. https://doi.org/10.1088/1757-899X/338/1/012062
[66] Patil, Satish S., et al. “Optoelectronic and photovoltaic properties of the Cu2ZnSnS4 photocathode by a temperature-dependent facile hydrothermal route.” Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research 60.21 (2021): 7816-7825. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.iecr.1c00801
[67] Patil, Satish S., et al. “Facile designing and assessment of photovoltaic performance of hydrothermally grown kesterite Cu2ZnSnS4 thin films: influence of deposition time.” Solar Energy 201 (2020): 102-115. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solener.2020.02.089
[68] Sawant, Jitendra P., and Rohidas B. Kale. “CZTS counter electrode in dye-sensitized solar cell: enhancement in photo conversion efficiency with morphology of TiO 2 nanostructured thin films.” Journal of Solid State Electrochemistry 24 (2020): 461-472. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10008-019-04452-w
[69] Pathan, H. M., and C. D. Lokhande. “Deposition of metal chalcogenide thin films by successive ionic layer adsorption and reaction (SILAR) method.” Bulletin of Materials Science 27 (2004): 85-111. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02708491
[70] Mane, R. S., and C. D. Lokhande. “Chemical deposition method for metal chalcogenide thin films.” Materials Chemistry and physics 65.1 (2000): 1-31. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0254-0584(00)00217-0
[71] Shinde, N. M., et al. “Room temperature novel chemical synthesis of Cu2ZnSnS4 (CZTS) absorbing layer for photovoltaic application.” Materials Research Bulletin 47.2 (2012): 302-307. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.materresbull.2011.11.020
[72] Kaza, Jasmitha, Mallikarjuna Rao Pasumarthi, and P. S. Avadhani. “Superstrate and substrate thin film configuration of CdS/CZTS solar cell fabricated using SILAR method.” Optics & Laser Technology 131 (2020): 106413. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.optlastec.2020.106413
[73] Krishnan, Ambily, et al. “Towards phase pure CZTS thin films by SILAR method with augmented Zn adsorption for photovoltaic applications.” Materials for Renewable and Sustainable Energy 8 (2019): 1-8. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40243-019-0152-1
[74] Patil, B. M., et al. “Photo-electrochemical performance of Cu2ZnSnS4 thin films prepared via successive ionic layer adsorption and reaction method.” Chemical Physics Letters 809 (2022): 140131. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cplett.2022.140131
[75] Suryawanshi, M. P., et al. “A promising modified SILAR sequence for the synthesis of photoelectrochemically active Cu2ZnSnS4 (CZTS) thin films.” Israel Journal of Chemistry 55.10 (2015): 1098-1102. https://doi.org/10.1002/ijch.201400203
[76] Suryawanshi, M. P., et al. “Improved photoelectrochemical performance of Cu2ZnSnS4 (CZTS) thin films prepared using modified successive ionic layer adsorption and reaction (SILAR) sequence.” Electrochimica Acta 150 (2014): 136-145. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electacta.2014.10.124
[77] Suryawanshi, M. P., et al. “CZTS based thin film solar cells: a status review.” Materials Technology 28.1-2 (2013): 98-109. https://doi.org/10.1179/1753555712Y.0000000038
[78] Berruet, Mariana, et al. “Highly‐efficient superstrate Cu2ZnSnS4 solar cell fabricated low‐cost methods.” physica status solidi (RRL)-Rapid Research Letters 11.8 (2017): 1700144. https://doi.org/10.1002/pssr.201700144
[79] Kumar, Vipin, and Vandana Grace Masih. “Fabrication and characterization of screen-Printed Cu 2 ZnSnS 4 films for photovoltaic applications.” Journal of Electronic Materials 48 (2019): 2195-2199. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11664-019-07053-5
[80] Zhang, Ying, et al. “Ink formulation, scalable applications and challenging perspectives of screen printing for emerging printed microelectronics.” Journal of Energy Chemistry 63 (2021): 498-513. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jechem.2021.08.011
[81] Zhou, Zhihua, et al. “Fabrication of Cu2ZnSnS4 screen printed layers for solar cells.” Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells 94.12 (2010): 2042-2045. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solmat.2010.06.010
[82] Wang, Yu, et al. “Influence of sintering temperature on screen printed Cu2ZnSnS4 (CZTS) films.” Journal of alloys and compounds 539 (2012): 237-241. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jallcom.2012.06.069
[83] Chen, Qinmiao, et al. “Cu2ZnSnS4 solar cell prepared entirely by non-vacuum processes.” Thin Solid Films 520.19 (2012): 6256-6261. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tsf.2012.05.074
[84] Chen, Qin-Miao, et al. “Doctor-bladed Cu2ZnSnS4 light absorption layer for low-cost solar cell application.” Chinese Physics B 21.3 (2012): 038401. https://doi.org/10.1088/1674-1056/21/3/038401
[85] Peksu, Elif, and Hakan Karaagac. “Preparation of CZTS thin films for the fabrication of ZnO nanorods based superstrate solar cells.” Journal of Alloys and Compounds 884 (2021): 161124. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jallcom.2021.161124
[86] Flynn, Brendan, et al. “Microwave assisted synthesis of Cu2ZnSnS4 colloidal nanoparticle inks.” physica status solidi (a) 209.11 (2012): 2186-2194. https://doi.org/10.1002/pssa.201127734
[87] Varadharajaperumal, S., et al. “Morphology controlled n-Type TiO2 and stoichiometry adjusted p- type Cu2ZnSnS4 thin films for photovoltaic applications.” Crystal Growth & Design 17.10 (2017): 5154-5162. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.cgd.7b00632
[88] Najafi, Vahid, and Salimeh Kimiagar. “Cd-free Cu2ZnSnS4 thin film solar cell on a flexible substrate using nano-crystal ink.” Thin Solid Films 657 (2018): 70-75. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tsf.2018.05.013
[89] Peng, Chien-Yi, et al. “Flexible CZTS solar cells on flexible Corning® Willow® Glass substrates.” 2014 IEEE 40th Photovoltaic Specialist Conference (PVSC). IEEE, 2014.
[90] López-Marino, Simón, et al. “Earth-abundant absorber based solar cells onto low weight stainless steel substrate.” Solar energy materials and solar cells 130 (2014): 347-353. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solmat.2014.07.030
[91] Walsh, Aron, et al. “Kesterite thin‐film solar cells: Advances in materials modelling of Cu2ZnSnS4.” Advanced Energy Materials 2.4 (2012): 400-409. https://doi.org/10.1002/aenm.201100630
[92] Fan, Ping, et al. “Over 10% Efficient Cu2CdSnS4 Solar Cells Fabricated from Optimized Sulfurization.” Advanced Functional Materials 32.45 (2022): 2207470. https://doi.org/10.1002/adfm.202207470
[93] Gokmen, Tayfun, et al. “Band tailing and efficiency limitation in kesterite solar cells.” Applied Physics Letters 103.10 (2013): 103506. https://doi.org/10.1063/1.4820250
[94] Ma, Suyu, et al. “Origin of band-tail and deep-donor states in Cu2ZnSnS4 solar cells and their suppression through Sn-poor composition.” The journal of physical chemistry letters 10.24 (2019): 7929-7936. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.jpclett.9b03227
[95] Chatterjee, Soumyo, and Amlan J. Pal. “A solution approach to p-type Cu2FeSnS4 thin-films and pn-junction solar cells: role of electron selective materials on their performance.” Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells 160 (2017): 233-240. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solmat.2016.10.037
[96] Guo, Huafei, et al. “The fabrication of Cu2BaSnS4 thin film solar cells utilizing a maskant layer.” Solar Energy 181 (2019): 301-307. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solener.2019.02.007
[97] El Radaf, I. M., et al. “Junction parameters and electrical characterization of the Al/n-Si/cu 2 CoSnS 4/au Heterojunction.” Journal of Electronic Materials 48 (2019): 6480-6486. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11664-019-07445-7
[98] Elsaeedy, H. I. “Growth, structure, optical and optoelectrical characterizations of the Cu 2 NiSnS 4 thin films synthesized by spray pyrolysis technique.” Journal of Materials Science: Materials in Electronics 30 (2019): 12545-12554. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10854-019-01615-3
[99] Das, Sonali, and Pitamber Mahanandia. “Improved PCE of solution processed kesterite Ag2ZnSnS4 quantum dot photovoltaic cell.” Materials Chemistry and Physics 281 (2022): 125878. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matchemphys.2022.125878
[100] Crovetto, Andrea, et al. “Wide band gap Cu2SrSnS4 solar cells from oxide precursors.” ACS Applied Energy Materials 2.10 (2019): 7340-7344. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsaem.9b01322
[101] Kumar, Mukesh, et al. “Strategic review of secondary phases, defects and defect-complexes in kesterite CZTS-Se solar cells.” Energy & Environmental Science 8.11 (2015): 3134-3159. https://doi.org/10.1039/C5EE02153G
[102] Olekseyuk, I. D., I. V. Dudchak, and L. V. Piskach. “Phase equilibria in the Cu2S-ZnS-SnS2 system.” Journal of alloys and compounds 368.1-2 (2004): 135-143. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jallcom.2003.08.084
[103] Nagoya, Akihiro, et al. “Defect formation and phase stability of Cu 2 ZnSnS 4 photovoltaic material.” Physical Review B 81.11 (2010): 113202. https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevB.81.113202
[104] Murugan, Anbazhagan, et al. “Effect of Zn on nanoscale quaternary Cu2ZnSnS4 thin film electrodes for high performance supercapacitors.” Journal of Energy Storage 44 (2021): 103423. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.est.2021.103423
[105] Islam, Md Fakhrul, Nadhrah Md Yatim, and Mohd Azman Hashim. “A review of CZTS thin film solar cell technology.” Journal of Advanced Research in Fluid Mechanics and Thermal Sciences 81.1 (2021): 73-87. https://doi.org/10.37934/arfmts.81.1.7387