Graphene based Materials for Bioelectronics and Healthcare
Satish Kumar, Tetiana Kurkina, Sven Ingebrandt, Vivek Pachauri
In the last decade, Graphene based materials (GBMs) have received special interest in physical sciences owing to their unique material properties at nanoscale. Extraction of two-dimensional lattice forms of carbon has allowed study of new physical phenomena at the molecular scales and allowing further miniaturization in electronics, which have tremendous implications for future technologies. Development of high-performance bioelectronics platforms is one such area where use of GBMs is expected to yield cutting-edge sensor platforms with far reaching consequences for the advancement of life sciences and healthcare. This chapter provides an overview of how GBMs, when used as electrical transducers, are enabling very attractive functionalities towards new-age bioelectronics solutions. In doing so, this a special focus is given to GBMs produced via chemical routes for realization of devices, surface functionalization, and related transduction approaches. Finally, the chapter evaluates their role in bioelectronics based on relevant material properties, current impact and critical challenges blocking their way towards real healthcare applications.
Keywords
Two-Dimensional Materials, Graphene, System-Integration, Surface Functionalization, Biosensors, Field-Effect Transistor, Electrochemical Detection
Published online 9/20/2019, 60 pages
Citation: Satish Kumar, Tetiana Kurkina, Sven Ingebrandt, Vivek Pachauri, Graphene based Materials for Bioelectronics and Healthcare, Materials Research Foundations, Vol. 56, pp 185-212, 2019
DOI: https://doi.org/10.21741/9781644900376-6
Part of the book on Organic Bioelectronics for Life Science and Healthcare
References
[1] Jariwala, D., et al., Carbon nanomaterials for electronics, optoelectronics, photovoltaics, and sensing. Chem. Soc. Rev., 2013. 42(7): p. 2824-2860. https://doi.org/10.1039/C2CS35335K
[2] Ajayan, P.M., Nanotubes from carbon. Chemical Reviews, 1999. 99: p. 1787−1799. https://doi.org/10.1021/cr970102g
[3] Das Sarma, S., et al., Electronic transport in two-dimensional graphene. Reviews of Modern Physics, 2011. 83(2): p. 407-470. https://doi.org/10.1103/RevModPhys.83.407
[4] Novoselov, K.S., et al., Two-dimensional atomic crystals. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A, 2005. 102(30): p. 10451-3. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0502848102
[5] Novoselov, K.S., et al., A roadmap for graphene. Nature, 2012. 490(7419): p. 192-200. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature11458
[6] Horng, J., et al., Drude conductivity of Dirac fermions in graphene. Physical Review B, 2011. 83(16). https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevB.83.165113
[7] Hwang, E.H., S. Adam, and S.D. Sarma, Carrier transport in two-dimensional graphene layers. Phys Rev Lett, 2007. 98(18): p. 186806. https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevLett.98.186806
[8] K. S. Novoselov, et al., Electrical field effet in atomically thin carbon films graphene. Science, 2004. 306: p. 666-669. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1102896
[9] Craciun, M.F., et al., Tuneable electronic properties in graphene. Nano Today, 2011. 6(1): p. 42-60. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nantod.2010.12.001
[10] Jens Baringhaus, et al., Exceptional ballistic transport in epitaxial graphene nanoribbons. Nature, 2014. 506: p. 349-354. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature12952
[11] Du, X., et al., Approaching ballistic transport in suspended graphene. Nat Nanotechnol, 2008. 3(8): p. 491-5. https://doi.org/10.1038/nnano.2008.199
[12] F. Bonaccorso, Z.S., T. Hasan and A. C. Ferrari, Graphene photonics and optoelectronics. Nature Photonics, 2010. 4: p. 611-622. https://doi.org/10.1038/nphoton.2010.186
[13] Garaj, S., et al., Graphene as a subnanometre trans-electrode membrane. Nature, 2010. 467(7312): p. 190-3. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature09379
[14] Y.-M. Lin, et al., 100-GHz Transistors fromWafer-Scale Epitaxial Graphene. Science, 2010. 327: p. 662. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1184289
[15] Barton, R.A., et al., High, size-dependent quality factor in an array of graphene mechanical resonators. Nano Lett, 2011. 11(3): p. 1232-6. https://doi.org/10.1021/nl1042227
[16] Goki Eda and Stefan A. Maier, Two-Dimensional Crystals: Managing Light for Optoelectronics. ACS Nano, 2013. 7(7): p. 5660–5665. https://doi.org/10.1021/nn403159y
[17] Yanqing Wu, et al., State-of-the-Art Graphene High-Frequency Electronics. Nano Letters, 2012. 12: p. 3062−3067. https://doi.org/10.1021/nl300904k
[18] Keller, D., C. Bustamante, and R.W. Keller, Imaging of single uncoated DNA molecules by scanning tunneling microscopy. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A., 1989. 86: p. 5356-5360. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.86.14.5356
[19] Chun-Hua, L., et al., A Graphene Platform for Sensing Biomolecules. Angewandte Chemie International Edition, 2009. 48(26): p. 4785-4787. https://doi.org/10.1002/anie.200901479
[20] Bart H. van der Schoot and P. Bergveld, ISFET Based Enzyme Sensors. Biosensors, 1987. 3(88): p. 161-186. https://doi.org/10.1016/0265-928X(87)80025-1
[21] Bergveld, P., Development of an Ion-Sensitive Solid-State Device for Neurophysiological Measurements. IEEE Transactions on biomedical engineering, 1970: p. 70-71. https://doi.org/10.1109/TBME.1970.4502688
[22] Bergveld, P., Thirty years of ISFETOLOGY – What happend in the past 30 years and what may happen in the next thirty years. Sens. Actuators, B, 2003. 88: p. 1. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0925-4005(02)00301-5
[23] Delle, L.E., et al., Scalable fabrication and application of nanoscale IDE-arrays as multi-electrode platform for label-free biosensing. Sensors and Actuators B: Chemical, 2018. 265: p. 115-125. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.snb.2018.02.174
[24] Pachauri, V. and S. Ingebrandt, Biologically sensitive field-effect transistors: from ISFETs to NanoFETs. Essays in Biochemistry, 2016. 60(1): p. 81-90. https://doi.org/10.1042/EBC20150009
[25] Achim, M., et al., Wafer-Scale Nanoimprint Lithography Process Towards Complementary Silicon Nanowire Field-Effect Transistors for Biosensor Applications. physica status solidi (a), 2018. 0(0).
[26] Janegitz, B.C., et al., The application of graphene for in vitro and in vivo electrochemical biosensing. Biosensors and Bioelectronics, 2017. 89: p. 224-233. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bios.2016.03.026
[27] Bodenmann, A.K. and A.H. MacDonald, Graphene: Exploring carbon flatland. Physics Today, 2007. 60(8): p. 35-41. https://doi.org/10.1063/1.2774096
[28] sutter, P., Epitaxial graphene: How silicon leaves the scene. Nature Materials, 2009. 8: p. 171-172. https://doi.org/10.1038/nmat2392
[29] Guanxiong Liu, et al., Epitaxial Graphene Nanoribbon Array Fabrication Using BCP-Assisted Nanolithography. ACS Nano, 2012. 6(8): p. 6786–6792. https://doi.org/10.1021/nn301515a
[30] Dabrowski, J., et al., Understanding the growth mechanism of graphene on Ge/Si(001) surfaces. Sci Rep, 2016. 6: p. 31639. https://doi.org/10.1038/srep31639
[31] Sutter, P.W., J.I. Flege, and E.A. Sutter, Epitaxial graphene on ruthenium. Nat Mater, 2008. 7(5): p. 406-11. https://doi.org/10.1038/nmat2166
[32] Tetlow, H., et al., Growth of epitaxial graphene: Theory and experiment. Physics Reports, 2014. 542(3): p. 195-295. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.physrep.2014.03.003
[33] Amini, S., et al., Growth of large-area graphene films from metal-carbon melts. Journal of Applied Physics, 2010. 108(9). https://doi.org/10.1063/1.3498815
[34] Kosynkin, D.V., et al., Longitudinal unzipping of carbon nanotubes to form graphene nanoribbons. Nature, 2009. 458(7240): p. 872-6. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature07872
[35] Wang, J., et al., Transition-metal-catalyzed unzipping of single-walled carbon nanotubes into narrow graphene nanoribbons at low temperature. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl, 2011. 50(35): p. 8041-5. https://doi.org/10.1002/anie.201101022
[36] Yuan Li and N. Chopra, Progress in large scale production of Graphene Vapor methods. JOM, 2015. 67(1): p. 44-52. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11837-014-1237-z
[37] Bianco, A., et al., All in the graphene family – A recommended nomenclature for two-dimensional carbon materials. Carbon, 2013. 65: p. 1–6. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbon.2013.08.038
[38] Wick, P., et al., Classification framework for graphene-based materials. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. Engl., 2014. 53(30): p. 7714-7718. https://doi.org/10.1002/anie.201403335
[39] Lee, D.W., et al., The Structure of Graphite Oxide: Investigation of Its Surface Chemical Groups. J. Phys. Chem. B, 2010. 114: p. 5723–5728. https://doi.org/10.1021/jp1002275
[40] Piccinini, E., et al., Enzyme-polyelectrolyte multilayer assemblies on reduced graphene oxide field-effect transistors for biosensing applications. Biosensors & bioelectronics, 2017. 92: p. 661–667. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bios.2016.10.035
[41] Reiner-Rozman, C., C. Kotlowski, and W. Knoll, Electronic Biosensing with Functionalized rGO FETs. Biosensors, 2016. 6(2): p. 17. https://doi.org/10.3390/bios6020017
[42] Talyzin, A.V., et al., Brodie vs Hummers graphite oxides for preparation of multi-layered materials. Carbon, 2017. 115: p. 430-440. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbon.2016.12.097
[43] Hummers, W.S. and R.E. Offeman, Preparation of Graphitic oxide. J. Am. Chem. Soc., 1958. 80: p. 1339. https://doi.org/10.1021/ja01539a017
[44] Cao, J., et al., Two-Step Electrochemical Intercalation and Oxidation of Graphite for the Mass Production of Graphene Oxide. Journal of the American Chemical Society, 2017. 139(48): p. 17446–17456. https://doi.org/10.1021/jacs.7b08515
[45] Siegfried Eigler, et al., Wet Chemical Synthesis of Graphene. Advanced Materials, 2013: p. 1-5.
[46] Marcano, D.C., et al., Improved Synthesis of Graphene Oxide. ACS Nano, 2010. 4(8): p. 4806-4814. https://doi.org/10.1021/nn1006368
[47] Lu, X., et al., Front-End-of-Line Integration of Graphene Oxide for Graphene-Based Electrical Platforms. Advanced Materials Technologies, 2018: p. 1700318. https://doi.org/10.1002/admt.201700318
[48] Poh, H.L., et al., Graphenes prepared by Staudenmaier, Hofmann and Hummers methods with consequent thermal exfoliation exhibit very different electrochemical properties. Nanoscale, 2012. 4(11): p. 3515-3522. https://doi.org/10.1039/c2nr30490b
[49] Yu, C., C.-F. Wang, and S. Chen, Facile Access to Graphene Oxide from Ferro-Induced Oxidation. Scientific reports, 2016. 6: p. 17071. https://doi.org/10.1038/srep17071
[50] Lu, J., et al., One-pot synthesis of fluorescent carbon nanoribbons, nanoparticles, and graphene by the exfoliation of graphite in ionic liquids. ACS nano, 2009. 3(8): p. 2367–2375. https://doi.org/10.1021/nn900546b
[51] Ahirwar, S., S. Mallick, and D. Bahadur, Electrochemical Method To Prepare Graphene Quantum Dots and Graphene Oxide Quantum Dots. ACS Omega, 2017. 2(11): p. 8343–8353. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsomega.7b01539
[52] Ching-Yuan Su, et al., High-Quality Thin Graphene Films from Fast Electrochemical Exfoliation. ACS Nano, 2011. 5(3): p. 2332–2339. https://doi.org/10.1021/nn200025p
[53] Tang, Q., Z. Zhou, and Z. Chen, Graphene-related nanomaterials: tuning properties by functionalization. Nanoscale, 2013. 5(11): p. 4541-83. https://doi.org/10.1039/c3nr33218g
[54] Kuila, T., et al., Chemical functionalization of graphene and its applications. Progress in Materials Science, 2012. 57(7): p. 1061-1105. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pmatsci.2012.03.002
[55] Lu, C., et al., A Graphene Platform for Sensing Biomolecules. Angewandte Chemie, 2009. 121(26): p. 4879-4881. https://doi.org/10.1002/ange.200901479
[56] Fabrice Balavoine, et al., Helical Crystallization of Proteins on Carbon Nanotubes: A First Step towards the Development of New Biosensors**. Angwandte Chemie Int. Edi., 1999. 38(13/14): p. 1912-1915. https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1521-3773(19990712)38:13/14<1912::AID-ANIE1912>3.0.CO;2-2
[57] Esther S. Jeng, A.E.M., Amanda C. Roy, Joseph B. Gastala, and Michael S. Strano, Detection of DNA Hybridization Using the Near-Infrared Band-Gap Fluorescence of Single-Walled Carbon Nanotubes. NanoLetters, 2006. 6(3): p. 371-375. https://doi.org/10.1021/nl051829k
[58] Kian Ping Loh, et al., The chemistry of graphene. J. Mater. Chem., 2010. 20: p. 2277–2289. https://doi.org/10.1039/b920539j
[59] Bosch-Navarro, C., et al., Non-covalent functionalization of graphene with a hydrophilic self-limiting monolayer for macro-molecule immobilization. FlatChem, 2017. 1: p. 52-56. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.flatc.2016.11.001
[60] Mustafa Lotya, et al., Liquid Phase Production of Graphene by Exfoliation of Graphite in Surfactant/Water Solutions. Journal of Americal Chemical Society, 2009. 131: p. 3611–3620. https://doi.org/10.1021/ja807449u
[61] Georgakilas, V., et al., Noncovalent Functionalization of Graphene and Graphene Oxide for Energy Materials, Biosensing, Catalytic, and Biomedical Applications. Chem Rev, 2016. 116(9): p. 5464-519. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.chemrev.5b00620
[62] Zhou, H., et al., Understanding Defect-Stabilized Noncovalent Functionalization of Graphene. Advanced Materials Interfaces, 2015. 2(17): p. 1500277. https://doi.org/10.1002/admi.201500277
[63] Delle, L.E., et al., ScFv-modified graphene-coated IDE-arrays for ‘label-free’ screening of cardiovascular disease biomarkers in physiological saline. Biosens Bioelectron, 2018. 102: p. 574-581. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bios.2017.12.005
[64] Delle, L., Advancing the performance of scalable nanoelectrochemical transducers: Nanoimprint fabrication, 2D material integration and biosensing optimization. 2017.
[65] Martin, G.a., Experimental Organic Chemistry.
[66] Akimitsu Narita, et al., New advances in nanographene chemistry. Chemical Society Reviews, 2015. 44: p. 6616-6643. https://doi.org/10.1039/C5CS00183H
[67] Bonanni, A., A. Ambrosi, and M. Pumera, Nucleic acid functionalized graphene for biosensing. Chem. Eur. J., 2012. 18(6): p. 1668-1673. https://doi.org/10.1002/chem.201102850
[68] Liu, Y., X. Dong, and P. Chen, Biological and chemical sensors based on graphene materials. Chem Soc Rev, 2012. 41(6): p. 2283-307. https://doi.org/10.1039/C1CS15270J
[69] Georgakilas, V., et al., Functionalization of graphene: covalent and non-covalent approaches, derivatives and applications. Chem Rev, 2012. 112(11): p. 6156-214. https://doi.org/10.1021/cr3000412
[70] Chen, D., H. Feng, and J. Li, Graphene oxide: preparation, functionalization, and electrochemical applications. Chem Rev, 2012. 112(11): p. 6027-53. https://doi.org/10.1021/cr300115g
[71] Dreyer, D.R., et al., The chemistry of graphene oxide. Chem. Soc. Rev., 2010. 39(1): p. 228-240. https://doi.org/10.1039/B917103G
[72] Steenackers, M., et al., Polymer brushes on graphene. J Am Chem Soc, 2011. 133(27): p. 10490-8. https://doi.org/10.1021/ja201052q
[73] Liu, Y., et al., Synthesis, characterization and optical limiting property of covalently oligothiophene-functionalized graphene material. Carbon, 2009. 47(13): p. 3113-3121. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbon.2009.07.027
[74] Balasubramanian, K. and M. Burghard, Electrochemically functionalized carbon nanotubes for device applications. Journal of Materials Chemistry, 2008. 18(26): p. 3071. https://doi.org/10.1039/b718262g
[75] Balasubramanian, K. and K. Kern, 25th anniversary article: label-free electrical biodetection using carbon nanostructures. Adv. Mater., 2014. 26(8): p. 1154-1175. https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.201304912
[76] Zuccaro, L., et al., Tuning the isoelectric point of graphene by electrochemical functionalization. Sci. Rep., 2015. 5: p. 11794. https://doi.org/10.1038/srep11794
[77] Balasubramanian, K., et al., Electrical Transport and Confocal Raman Studies of Electrochemically Modified Individual Carbon Nanotubes. Advanced Materials, 2003. 15(18): p. 1515-1518. https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.200305129
[78] Dreyer, D.R., A.D. Todd, and C.W. Bielawski, Harnessing the chemistry of graphene oxide. Chem. Soc. Rev., 2014. 43(15): p. 5288-5301. https://doi.org/10.1039/C4CS00060A
[79] Garg, R., N.K. Dutta, and N.R. Choudhury, Work Function Engineering of Graphene. Nanomaterials (Basel), 2014. 4(2): p. 267-300. https://doi.org/10.3390/nano4020267
[80] Sygellou, L., et al., Work Function Tuning of Reduced Graphene Oxide Thin Films. The Journal of Physical Chemistry C, 2016. 120(1): p. 281-290. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.jpcc.5b09234
[81] Hirsch, A., Functionalization of single walled carbon nanotubes. Angwandte Chemie International Edition, 2002. 41(11): p. 1853-1859. https://doi.org/10.1002/1521-3773(20020603)41:11<1853::AID-ANIE1853>3.0.CO;2-N
[82] Bahr, J.L. and J.M. Tour, Covalent chemistry of single-wall carbon nanotubes. Journal of Materials Chemistry, 2002. 12(7): p. 1952-1958. https://doi.org/10.1039/b201013p
[83] Malig, J., et al., Wet Chemistry of Graphene. The Electrochemical Society Interface, 2011. 20: p. 53-56. https://doi.org/10.1149/2.F06111if
[84] Balasubramanian, K., L. Zuccaro, and K. Kern, Tunable Enhancement of Raman Scattering in Graphene-Nanoparticle Hybrids. Advanced Functional Materials, 2014. 24(40): p. 6348-6358. https://doi.org/10.1002/adfm.201401796
[85] Kurkina, T., et al., Self-Assembled Electrical Biodetector Based on Reduced Graphene Oxide. ACS Nano, 2012. 6(6): p. 5514–5520. https://doi.org/10.1021/nn301429k
[86] Lanche, R., et al., Graphite oxide electrical sensors are able to distinguish single nucleotide polymorphisms in physiological buffers. FlatChem, 2018. 7: p. 1-9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.flatc.2017.12.001
[87] Lanche, R., et al., Reduced graphene oxide-based sensing platform for electric cell-substrate impedance sensing. Phys. Status Solidi A, 2014. 211(6): p. 1404-1409. https://doi.org/10.1002/pssa.201330522
[88] Monica, A.H., et al., Wafer-level assembly of carbon nanotube networks using dielectrophoresis. Nanotechnology, 2008. 19(8): p. 085303. https://doi.org/10.1088/0957-4484/19/8/085303
[89] Joung, D., et al., High yield fabrication of chemically reduced graphene oxide field effect transistors by dielectrophoresis. Nanotechnology, 2010. 21(16): p. 165202-165207. https://doi.org/10.1088/0957-4484/21/16/165202
[90] Collet, M., et al., Large-scale assembly of single nanowires through capillary-assisted dielectrophoresis. Adv. Mater., 2015. 27(7): p. 1268-1273. https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.201403039
[91] Lanche, R., et al., Routine fabrication of reduced graphene oxide microarray devices via all solution processing. physica status solidi (a), 2013. 210(5): p. 968-974. https://doi.org/10.1002/pssa.201200910
[92] Lanche, R., et al., Graphite oxide multilayers for device fabrication: Enzyme-based electrical sensing of glucose. physica status solidi (a), 2015. 212(6): p. 1335-1341. https://doi.org/10.1002/pssa.201431936
[93] Bianchi, M., et al., Scaling of graphene integrated circuits. Nanoscale, 2015. 7(17): p. 8076-83. https://doi.org/10.1039/C5NR01126D
[94] Banerjee, S.K., et al., Graphene for CMOS and Beyond CMOS Applications. Proceedings of the IEEE, 2011. 98(12): p. 2032-2046. https://doi.org/10.1109/JPROC.2010.2064151
[95] Nguyen, V.L. and Y.H. Lee, Towards Wafer-Scale Monocrystalline Graphene Growth and Characterization. Small, 2015. 11(29): p. 3512-3528. https://doi.org/10.1002/smll.201500147
[96] Zaharie-Butucel, D., et al., Flexible transparent sensors from reduced graphene oxide micro-stripes fabricated by convective self-assembly. Carbon, 2017. 113: p. 361–370. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbon.2016.11.013
[97] Cho, J., et al., Wafer-scale and environmentally-friendly deposition methodology for extremely uniform, high-performance transistor arrays with an ultra-low amount of polymer semiconductors. Journal of Materials Chemistry C, 2015. 3(12): p. 2817–2822. https://doi.org/10.1039/C4TC02674H
[98] Pham, V.H., et al., Fast and simple fabrication of a large transparent chemically-converted graphene film by spray-coating. Carbon, 2010. 48(7): p. 1945–1951. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbon.2010.01.062
[99] Gilje, S., et al., A chemical route to graphene for device applications. Nano letters, 2007. 7(11): p. 3394–3398. https://doi.org/10.1021/nl0717715
[100] Li, D., et al., Processable aqueous dispersions of graphene nanosheets. Nat Nanotechnol, 2008. 3(2): p. 101-5. https://doi.org/10.1038/nnano.2007.451
[101] Borini, S., et al., Ultrafast graphene oxide humidity sensors. ACS nano, 2013. 7(12): p. 11166–11173. https://doi.org/10.1021/nn404889b
[102] Yu, X., et al., Fabrication technologies and sensing applications of graphene-based composite films: Advances and challenges. Biosensors and Bioelectronics, 2017. 89: p. 72-84. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bios.2016.01.081
[103] Kumar, R., et al., Direct laser writing of micro-supercapacitors on thick graphite oxide films and their electrochemical properties in different liquid inorganic electrolytes. Journal of Colloid and Interface Science, 2017. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcis.2017.08.005
[104] Chen, X., et al., Controlling the Thickness of Thermally Expanded Films of Graphene Oxide. ACS Nano, 2017. 11(1): p. 665-674. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsnano.6b06954
[105] Boehm, H.P., et al., Das Adsorptionsverhalten sehr dunner Ko hlenstoff Folien. Journal of Inorganic and General Chemistry, 1962. 316(3-4): p. 119-127. https://doi.org/10.1002/zaac.19623160303
[106] Wang, Y., et al., Nitrogen-doped graphene and its application in electrochemical biosensing. ACS Nano, 2010. 4(4): p. 1790-8. https://doi.org/10.1021/nn100315s
[107] Bonaccorso, F., et al., Production and processing of graphene and 2d crystals. Materials Today, 2012. 15(12): p. 564-589. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1369-7021(13)70014-2
[108] Lee, S.W., et al., Plasma-Assisted Reduction of Graphene Oxide at Low Temperature and Atmospheric Pressure for Flexible Conductor Applications. J Phys Chem Lett, 2012. 3(6): p. 772-7. https://doi.org/10.1021/jz300080p
[109] Zhijuan Wang, et al., Direct Electrochemical Reduction of Single-Layer Graphene Oxide and Subsequent Functionalization with Glucose Oxidase. JOurnal of Physical Chemistry C, 2009. 113: p. 14071–14075. https://doi.org/10.1021/jp906348x
[110] Haque, A.M., et al., An electrochemically reduced graphene oxide-based electrochemical immunosensing platform for ultrasensitive antigen detection. Anal Chem, 2012. 84(4): p. 1871-8. https://doi.org/10.1021/ac202562v
[111] Shao, Y., et al., Facile and controllable electrochemical reduction of graphene oxide and its applications. J. Mater. Chem., 2010. 20(4): p. 743-748. https://doi.org/10.1039/B917975E
[112] Yang, J., et al., Direct Reduction of Graphene Oxide by Ni Foam as a High-Capacitance Supercapacitor Electrode. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces, 2016. 8(3): p. 2297-305. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.5b11337
[113] Zhang, Y.-L., et al., Photoreduction of Graphene Oxides: Methods, Properties, and Applications. Advanced Optical Materials, 2014. 2(1): p. 10-28. https://doi.org/10.1002/adom.201300317
[114] Yong-Lai, Z., et al., Photoreduction of Graphene Oxides: Methods, Properties, and Applications. Advanced Optical Materials, 2014. 2(1): p. 10-28. https://doi.org/10.1002/adom.201300317
[115] Pei, S. and H.-M. Cheng, The reduction of graphene oxide. Carbon, 2012. 50(9): p. 3210-3228. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbon.2011.11.010
[116] Bonanni, A., A.H. Loo, and M. Pumera, Graphene for impedimetric biosensing. TrAC Trends in Analytical Chemistry, 2012. 37: p. 12-21. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trac.2012.02.011
[117] Kim, J.E., et al., Highly sensitive graphene biosensor by monomolecular self-assembly of receptors on graphene surface. Applied Physics Letters, 2017. 110(20): p. 203702. https://doi.org/10.1063/1.4983084
[118] Iddo Heller, S.C., Jaan Maennik, Marcel A. G. Zevenbergen, Cees Dekker, and Serge G. Lemay, Influence of Electrolyte Composition on Liquid-Gated Carbon Nanotube and Graphene Transistors. Journal of Americal Chemical Society, 2010. 132: p. 17149–17156. https://doi.org/10.1021/ja104850n
[119] Giovanni, M., A. Bonanni, and M. Pumera, Detection of DNA hybridization on chemically modified graphene platforms. Analyst, 2012. 137(3): p. 580-3. https://doi.org/10.1039/C1AN15910K
[120] Hwang, M.T., et al., Highly specific SNP detection using 2D graphene electronics and DNA strand displacement. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A, 2016. 113(26): p. 7088-93. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1603753113
[121] Bellan, L.M., D. Wu, and R.S. Langer, Current trends in nanobiosensor technology. Wiley Interdiscip Rev Nanomed Nanobiotechnol, 2011. 3(3): p. 229-246. https://doi.org/10.1002/wnan.136
[122] Karla Soares-Weiser, et al., The diagnosis of food allergy: protocol for a systematic review. Clinical and Translational Allergy, 2014. 3(18): p. 76–86. https://doi.org/10.1186/2045-7022-3-18
[123] K., S.-W., et al., The diagnosis of food allergy: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Allergy, 2014. 69(1): p. 76-86. https://doi.org/10.1111/all.12333
[124] Chekin, F., et al., Reduced Graphene Oxide Modified Electrodes for Sensitive Sensing of Gliadin in Food Samples. ACS Sensors, 2016. 1(12): p. 1462-1470. https://doi.org/10.1021/acssensors.6b00608
[125] Eissa, S. and M. Zourob, In vitro selection of DNA aptamers targeting β-lactoglobulin and their integration in graphene-based biosensor for the detection of milk allergen. Biosensors and Bioelectronics, 2017. 91: p. 169-174. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bios.2016.12.020
[126] Sun, X., et al., Multilayer graphene–gold nanocomposite modified stem-loop DNA biosensor for peanut allergen-Ara h1 detection. Food Chemistry, 2015. 172: p. 335-342. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2014.09.042
[127] Zhang, Y., et al., DNA aptamer for use in a fluorescent assay for the shrimp allergen tropomyosin. Microchimica Acta, 2017. 184(2): p. 633-639. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00604-016-2042-x
[128] Chapin, R.E., et al., NTP-CERHR expert panel report on the reproductive and developmental toxicity of bisphenol A. Birth Defects Res B Dev Reprod Toxicol, 2008. 83(3): p. 157-395. https://doi.org/10.1002/bdrb.20147
[129] Vandenberg, L.N., et al., Bisphenol-A and the great divide: a review of controversies in the field of endocrine disruption. Endocr Rev, 2009. 30(1): p. 75-95. https://doi.org/10.1210/er.2008-0021
[130] vom Saal, F.S. and C. Hughes, An Extensive New Literature Concerning Low-Dose Effects of Bisphenol A Shows the Need for a New Risk Assessment. Environmental Health Perspectives, 2005. 113(8): p. 926-933. https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.7713
[131] Rubin, B.S., Bisphenol A: An endocrine disruptor with widespread exposure and multiple effects. The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, 2011. 127(1): p. 27-34. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsbmb.2011.05.002
[132] Su, B., et al., A sensitive bisphenol A voltammetric sensor relying on AuPd nanoparticles/graphene composites modified glassy carbon electrode. Talanta, 2017. 166: p. 126-132. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.talanta.2017.01.049
[133] Tan, F., et al., An electrochemical sensor based on molecularly imprinted polypyrrole/graphene quantum dots composite for detection of bisphenol A in water samples. Sensors and Actuators B: Chemical, 2016. 233: p. 599-606. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.snb.2016.04.146
[134] Alam, M.K., et al., Highly sensitive and selective detection of Bis-phenol A based on hydroxyapatite decorated reduced graphene oxide nanocomposites. Electrochimica Acta, 2017. 241: p. 353-361. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electacta.2017.04.135
[135] B. Ntsendwana, et al., Electrochemical Detection of Bisphenol A Using GrapheneModified Glassy Carbon Electrode. Int. J. Electrochem. Sci., 2012. 7 p. 3501-3512.
[136] Ndlovu, T., et al., An Exfoliated Graphite-Based Bisphenol A Electrochemical Sensor. Sensors, 2012. 12(9): p. 11601-11611. https://doi.org/10.3390/s120911601
[137] Zheng, Z., et al., Pt/graphene–CNTs nanocomposite based electrochemical sensors for the determination of endocrine disruptor bisphenol A in thermal printing papers. Analyst, 2013. 138(2): p. 693-701. https://doi.org/10.1039/C2AN36569C
[138] Zhou, L., et al., Femtomolar sensitivity of bisphenol A photoelectrochemical aptasensor induced by visible light-driven TiO2 nanoparticle-decorated nitrogen-doped graphene. Journal of Materials Chemistry B, 2016. 4(37): p. 6249-6257. https://doi.org/10.1039/C6TB01414C
[139] Hu, L.-Y., et al., Magnetic separate “turn-on” fluorescent biosensor for Bisphenol A based on magnetic oxidation graphene. Talanta, 2017. 168: p. 196-202. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.talanta.2017.03.055
[140] Mitra, R. and A. Saha, Reduced Graphene Oxide Based “Turn-On” Fluorescence Sensor for Highly Reproducible and Sensitive Detection of Small Organic Pollutants. ACS Sustainable Chemistry & Engineering, 2017. 5(1): p. 604-615. https://doi.org/10.1021/acssuschemeng.6b01971
[141] Zhou, L., et al., Label-free graphene biosensor targeting cancer molecules based on non-covalent modification. Biosensors and Bioelectronics, 2017. 87: p. 701-707. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bios.2016.09.025
[142] Chen, H., et al., Electrochemical immunosensor for carcinoembryonic antigen based on nanosilver-coated magnetic beads and gold-graphene nanolabels. Talanta, 2012. 91: p. 95-102. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.talanta.2012.01.025
[143] Ge, S., et al., Disposable electrochemical immunosensor for simultaneous assay of a panel of breast cancer tumor markers. Analyst, 2012. 137(20): p. 4727-4733. https://doi.org/10.1039/c2an35967g
[144] Zhu, L., et al., Electrochemical immunoassay for carcinoembryonic antigen using gold nanoparticle–graphene composite modified glassy carbon electrode. Talanta, 2013. 116: p. 809-815. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.talanta.2013.07.069
[145] Liu, G., et al., Nanocomposites of gold nanoparticles and graphene oxide towards an stable label-free electrochemical immunosensor for detection of cardiac marker troponin-I. Analytica Chimica Acta, 2016. 909: p. 1-8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aca.2015.12.023
[146] Tuteja, S.K., et al., Biofunctionalized Rebar Graphene (f-RG) for Label-Free Detection of Cardiac Marker Troponin I. ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces, 2014. 6(17): p. 14767-14771. https://doi.org/10.1021/am503524e
[147] Kumar, V., et al., Graphene-CNT nanohybrid aptasensor for label free detection of cardiac biomarker myoglobin. Biosens Bioelectron, 2015. 72: p. 56-60. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bios.2015.04.089
[148] Tuteja, S.K., et al., Graphene-gated biochip for the detection of cardiac marker Troponin I. Anal Chim Acta, 2014. 809: p. 148-54. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aca.2013.11.047
[149] Singal, S., et al., Immunoassay for troponin I using a glassy carbon electrode modified with a hybrid film consisting of graphene and multiwalled carbon nanotubes and decorated with platinum nanoparticles. Microchimica Acta, 2016. 183(4): p. 1375-1384. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00604-016-1759-x
[150] Tuteja, S.K., et al., One step in-situ synthesis of amine functionalized graphene for immunosensing of cardiac marker cTnI. Biosens Bioelectron, 2015. 66: p. 129-35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bios.2014.10.072
[151] Tuteja, S.K., et al., A label-free electrochemical immunosensor for the detection of cardiac marker using graphene quantum dots (GQDs). Biosens Bioelectron, 2016. 86: p. 548-556. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bios.2016.07.052
[152] Jeffery K. Taubenberger and D.M. Morens, The Pathology of Influenza Virus Infections. Annu Rev Pathol., 2008 3: p. 499–522. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.pathmechdis.3.121806.154316
[153] Peiris, J.S., M.D. de Jong, and Y. Guan, Avian influenza virus (H5N1): a threat to human health. Clin Microbiol Rev, 2007. 20(2): p. 243-67. https://doi.org/10.1128/CMR.00037-06
[154] Singh, R., S. Hong, and J. Jang, Label-free Detection of Influenza Viruses using a Reduced Graphene Oxide-based Electrochemical Immunosensor Integrated with a Microfluidic Platform. Sci Rep, 2017. 7: p. 42771. https://doi.org/10.1038/srep42771
[155] Huang, J., et al., Silver nanoparticles coated graphene electrochemical sensor for the ultrasensitive analysis of avian influenza virus H7. Analytica Chimica Acta, 2016. 913: p. 121-127. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aca.2016.01.050
[156] Chan, C., et al., A microfluidic flow-through chip integrated with reduced graphene oxide transistor for influenza virus gene detection. Sensors and Actuators B: Chemical, 2017. 251: p. 927–933. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.snb.2017.05.147
[157] Pandey, A., et al., Graphene-interfaced electrical biosensor for label-free and sensitive detection of foodborne pathogenic E. coli O157:H7. Biosensors and Bioelectronics, 2017. 91: p. 225-231. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bios.2016.12.041
[158] Chan, C.-Y., et al., A reduced graphene oxide-Au based electrochemical biosensor for ultrasensitive detection of enzymatic activity of botulinum neurotoxin A. Sensors and Actuators B: Chemical, 2015. 220: p. 131-137. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.snb.2015.05.052
[159] Zuo, P., et al., A PDMS/paper/glass hybrid microfluidic biochip integrated with aptamer-functionalized graphene oxide nano-biosensors for one-step multiplexed pathogen detection. Lab Chip, 2013. 13(19): p. 3921-8. https://doi.org/10.1039/c3lc50654a
[160] Shi, J., et al., A fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET) biosensor based on graphene quantum dots (GQDs) and gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) for the detection of mecA gene sequence of Staphylococcus aureus. Biosens Bioelectron, 2015. 67: p. 595-600. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bios.2014.09.059
[161] Cheat, S., et al., The mycotoxins deoxynivalenol and nivalenol show in vivo synergism on jejunum enterocytes apoptosis. Food and Chemical Toxicology, 2016. 87: p. 45-54. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fct.2015.11.019
[162] Campagnollo, F.B., et al., The occurrence and effect of unit operations for dairy products processing on the fate of aflatoxin M1: A review. Food Control, 2016. 68: p. 310-329. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodcont.2016.04.007
[163] Srivastava, S., et al., Graphene Oxide-Based Biosensor for Food Toxin Detection. Applied Biochemistry and Biotechnology, 2014. 174(3): p. 960-970. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12010-014-0965-4
[164] Ahmed, S.R., et al., Size-controlled preparation of peroxidase-like graphene-gold nanoparticle hybrids for the visible detection of norovirus-like particles. Biosensors and Bioelectronics, 2017. 87: p. 558-565. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bios.2016.08.101
[165] Lu, L., et al., An Electrochemical Immunosensor for Rapid and Sensitive Detection of Mycotoxins Fumonisin B1 and Deoxynivalenol. Electrochimica Acta, 2016. 213: p. 89-97. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electacta.2016.07.096
[166] Gan, N., et al., An ultrasensitive electrochemiluminescent immunoassay for aflatoxin M1 in milk, based on extraction by magnetic graphene and detection by antibody-labeled CdTe quantumn dots-carbon nanotubes nanocomposite. Toxins (Basel), 2013. 5(5): p. 865-83. https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins5050865
[167] Sheng, L., et al., PVP-coated graphene oxide for selective determination of ochratoxin A via quenching fluorescence of free aptamer. Biosens Bioelectron, 2011. 26(8): p. 3494-9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bios.2011.01.032
[168] Zhang, J., et al., Size-dependent modulation of graphene oxide–aptamer interactions for an amplified fluorescence-based detection of aflatoxin B1 with a tunable dynamic range. Analyst, 2016. 141(13): p. 4029-4034. https://doi.org/10.1039/C6AN00368K
[169] Yugender Goud, K., et al., Aptamer-based zearalenone assay based on the use of a fluorescein label and a functional graphene oxide as a quencher. Microchimica Acta, 2017. 184(11): p. 4401-4408. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00604-017-2487-6
[170] Islam, M.N., S.F. Bint-E-Naser, and M.S. Khan, Pesticide Food Laws and Regulations, in Pesticide Residue in Foods: Sources, Management, and Control, M.S. Khan and M.S. Rahman, Editors. 2017, Springer International Publishing: Cham. p. 37-51. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-52683-6_3
[171] Yanping, L., et al., An Acetylcholinesterase Biosensor Based on Graphene/Polyaniline Composite Film for Detection of Pesticides. Chinese Journal of Chemistry, 2016. 34(1): p. 82-88. https://doi.org/10.1002/cjoc.201500747
[172] Liang, H., D. Song, and J. Gong, Signal-on electrochemiluminescence of biofunctional CdTe quantum dots for biosensing of organophosphate pesticides. Biosens Bioelectron, 2014. 53: p. 363-9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bios.2013.10.011
[173] Guler, M., V. Turkoglu, and Z. Basi, Determination of malation, methidathion, and chlorpyrifos ethyl pesticides using acetylcholinesterase biosensor based on Nafion/Ag@rGO-NH2 nanocomposites. Electrochimica Acta, 2017. 240: p. 129-135. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electacta.2017.04.069
[174] Li, Y., et al., Porous-reduced graphene oxide for fabricating an amperometric acetylcholinesterase biosensor. Sensors and Actuators B: Chemical, 2013. 185: p. 706-712. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.snb.2013.05.061
[175] Zhang, H., et al., Functionalized graphene oxide for the fabrication of paraoxon biosensors. Anal Chim Acta, 2014. 827: p. 86-94. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aca.2014.04.014
[176] Oliveira, T.M.B.F., et al., Sensitive bi-enzymatic biosensor based on polyphenoloxidases–gold nanoparticles–chitosan hybrid film–graphene doped carbon paste electrode for carbamates detection. Bioelectrochemistry, 2014. 98: p. 20-29. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bioelechem.2014.02.003
[177] Mehta, J., et al., Graphene modified screen printed immunosensor for highly sensitive detection of parathion. Biosens Bioelectron, 2016. 83: p. 339-46. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bios.2016.04.058
[178] Sharma, P., et al., Bio-functionalized graphene-graphene oxide nanocomposite based electrochemical immunosensing. Biosens Bioelectron, 2013. 39(1): p. 99-105. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bios.2012.06.061
[179] Yan, Y., et al., A facile strategy to construct pure thiophene-sulfur-doped graphene/ZnO nanoplates sensitized structure for fabricating a novel “on-off-on” switch photoelectrochemical aptasensor. Sensors and Actuators B: Chemical, 2017. 251: p. 99-107. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.snb.2017.05.034
[180] Wang, X.-F., et al., Signal-On Electrochemiluminescence Biosensors Based on CdS-Carbon Nanotube Nanocomposite for the Sensitive Detection of Choline and Acetylcholine. Advanced Functional Materials, 2009. 19(9): p. 1444-1450. https://doi.org/10.1002/adfm.200801313
[181] Caballero-Díaz, E., S. Benítez-Martínez, and M. Valcárcel, Rapid and simple nanosensor by combination of graphene quantum dots and enzymatic inhibition mechanisms. Sensors and Actuators B: Chemical, 2017. 240: p. 90-99. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.snb.2016.08.153
[182] Park, J.W., et al., Polypyrrole nanotube embedded reduced graphene oxide transducer for field-effect transistor-type H2O2 biosensor. Analytical chemistry, 2014. 86(3): p. 1822–1828. https://doi.org/10.1021/ac403770x
[183] Roney, J.R. and Z.L. Simmons, Hormonal predictors of sexual motivation in natural menstrual cycles. Hormones and Behavior, 2013. 63(4): p. 636-645. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yhbeh.2013.02.013
[184] Arvand, M. and S. Hemmati, Analytical methodology for the electro-catalytic determination of estradiol and progesterone based on graphene quantum dots and poly(sulfosalicylic acid) co-modified electrode. Talanta, 2017. 174: p. 243-255. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.talanta.2017.05.083
[185] Dong, X.-X., et al., Development of a progesterone immunosensor based on thionine-graphene oxide composites platforms: Improvement by biotin-streptavidin-amplified system. Talanta, 2017. 170: p. 502-508. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.talanta.2017.04.054
[186] Chang, Y., et al., In vitro toxicity evaluation of graphene oxide on A549 cells. Toxicol Lett, 2011. 200(3): p. 201-10. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.toxlet.2010.11.016
[187] Ang, P.K., et al., Flow sensing of single cell by graphene transistor in a microfluidic channel. Nano Lett, 2011. 11(12): p. 5240-6. https://doi.org/10.1021/nl202579k
[188] Feng, L., et al., A graphene functionalized electrochemical aptasensor for selective label-free detection of cancer cells. Biomaterials, 2011. 32(11): p. 2930-7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biomaterials.2011.01.002
[189] Basiricò, L., et al., Inkjet printing of transparent, flexible, organic transistors. Thin Solid Films, 2011. 520(4): p. 1291-1294. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tsf.2011.04.188
[190] Akinwande, D., N. Petrone, and J. Hone, Two-dimensional flexible nanoelectronics. Nat Commun, 2014. 5: p. 12. https://doi.org/10.1038/ncomms6678
[191] Das, S., et al., All two-dimensional, flexible, transparent, and thinnest thin film transistor. Nano Lett, 2014. 14(5): p. 2861-6. https://doi.org/10.1021/nl5009037
[192] Deji Akinwande, Nicholas Petrone, and J. Hone, Two-dimensional flexible nanoelectronics. Nature Communications, 2014. 5: p. 1-12. https://doi.org/10.1038/ncomms6678
[193] Fiori, G., et al., Electronics based on two-dimensional materials. Nat. Nanotechnol., 2014. 9: p. 1-12. https://doi.org/10.1038/nnano.2014.283
[194] Nathan, A., et al., Flexible Electronics: The Next Ubiquitous Platform. Proceedings of the IEEE, 2012. 100(Special Centennial Issue): p. 1486-1517. https://doi.org/10.1109/JPROC.2012.2190168
[195] Kim, D.H., et al., Flexible and stretchable electronics for biointegrated devices. Annu Rev Biomed Eng, 2012. 14: p. 113-28. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-bioeng-071811-150018
[196] Mao, S., et al., Specific protein detection using thermally reduced graphene oxide sheet decorated with gold nanoparticle-antibody conjugates. Advanced materials (Deerfield Beach, Fla.), 2010. 22(32): p. 3521–3526. https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.201000520
[197] Cai, B., et al., Ultrasensitive Label-Free Detection of PNA-DNA Hybridization by Reduced Graphene Oxide Field-Effect Transistor Biosensor. ACS Nano, 2014. 8(3): p. 2632–2638. https://doi.org/10.1021/nn4063424
[198] Chang, J., et al., Ultrasonic-assisted self-assembly of monolayer graphene oxide for rapid detection of Escherichia coli bacteria. Nanoscale, 2013. 5(9): p. 3620–3626. https://doi.org/10.1039/c3nr00141e
[199] Myung, S., et al., Label-free polypeptide-based enzyme detection using a graphene-nanoparticle hybrid sensor. Adv Mater, 2012. 24(45): p. 6081-7. https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.201202961
[200] Chen, H., et al., Detection of Matrilysin Activity Using Polypeptide Functionalized Reduced Graphene Oxide Field-Effect Transistor Sensor. Analytical chemistry, 2016. 88(6): p. 2994–2998. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.analchem.5b04663
[201] Lei, Y.-M., et al., Detection of heart failure-related biomarker in whole blood with graphene field effect transistor biosensor. Biosensors & bioelectronics, 2017. 91: p. 1–7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bios.2016.12.018
[202] Chen, Y., et al., Field-Effect Transistor Biosensor for Rapid Detection of Ebola Antigen. Scientific reports, 2017. 7(1): p. 10974. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-017-11387-7